Файл: anglysky_prf.docx

1. What is a therapy?

2. What are the chemical and biological methods?

3. What do physical conservative treatments include?

4. What is radiotherapy?

5. How may radiotherapy be used?

6. What is physiotherapy?

7. Whom do PTs diagnose and treat?

Хирургиялық. Травматологиялық.// Грамматикалық материалдарды жүйелеу: // Surgery. Traumatology

1. Surgery is a medical specialty using operative and instrumental techniques for a physical intervention on tissues.

2. The main object of a surgical procedure or operation performed by surgeon is to improve bodily function or appearance.

3. The surgical operation may be performed on a person or an animal.

4. The term surgeon may be applied to physicians, podiatrists, dentists or even veterinarians.

5. Surgical operation involves cutting of a patient's tissues or closure of a previously sustained wound.

6. Traumatology (from Greek "Trauma" meaning injury or wound) is the study of wounds, and injuries caused by accidents or violence, and the surgical therapy of the damage.

7. Traumatology or accident surgery is a branch of medicine and the sub-specialty of surgery, trauma surgery or orthopedic surgery.

Factors in the assessment of wounds are:

• the nature of the wound, whether it is a laceration, abrasion, bruise or burn

• the size of the wound in length, width and depth

• the extent of the overall area of tissue damage caused by the impact of a mechanical force, or the reaction to chemical agents in.

8) Forensic physicians and pathologists may also examine (traumatic) wounds on people.

9) Trauma surgery is a surgical specialty deals with the invasive treatment of physical injuries in an emergency setting.

10) Trauma surgeons require residency training in general surgery and often fellowship training in trauma or surgical critical care.

11) The trauma surgeon should resuscitate and stabilize the patient, and provide evaluation and management.

12) The trauma team typically includes nurses, support staff as well as resident physicians in teaching hospitals.

Surgery is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate and/or treat a pathological condition such as disease or injury, or to help improve bodily function or appearance. An act of performing surgery may be called a surgical procedure, operation, or simply surgery. In this context, the verb operate means to perform surgery. The adjective surgical means pertaining to surgery; e.g. surgical instruments or surgical nurse. The patient or subject on which the surgery is performed can be a person or an animal. A surgeon is a person who practices surgery. Persons described as surgeons are commonly physicians, but the term is also applied to podiatrists, dentists and veterinarians. A surgery can last from minutes to hours, but is typically not an ongoing or periodic type of treatment. The term surgery can also refer to the place where surgery is performed, or simply the office of a physician, dentist, or veterinarian.

Surgery is a technology consisting of a physical intervention on tissues.

As a general rule, a procedure is considered surgical when it involves cutting of a patient's tissues or closure of a previously sustained wound.

Traumatology (from Greek "Trauma" meaning injury or wound) is the study of wounds and injuries caused by accidents or violence to a person, and the surgical therapy and repair of the damage. Traumatology is a branch of medicine. It is often considered a subset of surgery and in countries without the specialty of trauma surgery it is most often a sub-specialty to orthopedic surgery. Traumatology may also be known as accident surgery.

Factors in the assessment of wounds are:

• the nature of the wound, whether it is a laceration, abrasion, bruise or burn

• the size of the wound in length, width and depth

• the extent of the overall area of tissue damage caused by the impact of a mechanical force, or the reaction to chemical agents in.

Forensic physicians, as well as pathologists may also be required to examine (traumatic) wounds on people.

Trauma surgery is a surgical specialty involved in the invasive treatment of physical injuries, typically in an emergency setting. Trauma surgeons generally complete residency training in general surgery and often fellowship training in trauma or surgical critical care. The trauma surgeon is responsible for the initial resuscitation and stabilization of the patient, as well as ongoing evaluation and management. The attending trauma surgeon also leads the trauma team, which typically includes nurses and support staff as well as resident physicians in teaching hospitals.

III. Answer the questions

1

. What is surgery?

2. What is traumatology?

3. What is trauma surgery?

4. Who is the surgeon?

5. What are the factors in the assessment of wounds?

6. What is the trauma surgery responsible for?

7. What is as accident surgeryknown?

Неврология// Грамматикалық материалдарды жүйелеу: Құрмалас сабақтас сөйлемдегі сөздің реті. //NEUROLOGY

1. Neurology is the subspecialty of medicine that deals with the scientific study of the structure and functioning of the nervous system (brain, spinal cord, muscles, nerves, nerve roots).

2. A neurologist specializes in diagnosing, treating and managing disorders of the brain and nervous system.

3. Pediatric neurologists specialize in children's neurological disorders.

4. A neurologist require four years of medical school, one year internship and three years of specialized training and some of them have additional training in one area of neurology such as stroke, epilepsy or movement disorders.

5. Neurologists diagnose and treat neurological disorders requiring frequent care, such as stroke, headaches, epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, sleep disorders, pain tremor, brain and spinal cord injuries, brain tumors, peripheral nerve disorders, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or multiple sclerosis.

6. Clot-busting medications in treating of stroke patients reducedeaths and decrease disability, other new medications relieve migraines, slow the progression of multiple sclerosis and improve movement in Parkinson's patients.

Neurology is the subspecialty of medicine that deals with the scientific study of the structure and functioning of the nervous system, including the diagnosis and management of its maladies. A Neurologist is the physician specialized in this field).

Nervous system encompasses a group of several highly advanced and interconnected structures in the body that organize myriad body functions and include: brain, spinal cord, muscles, nerves, nerve roots).

A neurologist is a medical doctor with specialized training in diagnosing, treating and managing disorders of the brain and nervous system. Pediatric neurologists are doctors with specialized training in children's neurological disorders.

A neurologist's educational background and medical training includes an undergraduate degree, four years of medical school, a one year internship and three years of specialized training. Many neurologists also have additional training in one area of neurology such as stroke, epilepsy or movement disorders. Neurologists are principal care providers or consultants to other physicians. When a patient has a neurological disorder that requires frequent care, a neurologist is often the principal care provider. Patients with disorders such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease or multiple sclerosis may use a neurologist as their principal care physician. In a consulting role, a neurologist will diagnosis and treat a neurological disorder and then advise the primary care physician managing the patient's overall health. For example, a neurologist would act in a consulting role for conditions such as stroke, concussion or headache). Neurologists can recommend surgical treatment, but do not perform surgery. When treatment includes surgery, neurologists will monitor surgically treated patients and supervise their continuing treatment. Neurosurgeons are medical doctors who specialize in performing surgical treatments of the brain or nervous system. Neurologists treat disorders of the nervous system, brain, spinal cord, nerves, muscles and pain. Common neurological disorders include: stroke, Alzheimer's disease, headache, epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, sleep disorders, multiple sclerosis, pain tremor, brain and spinal cord injuries, brain tumors, peripheral nerve disorders, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

In recent years, research has advanced understanding of the brain's fundamental mechanisms. With this new understanding, neurologists are finding new treatments and, ultimately, cures for many neurological diseases, which are among the most destructive and costly public health problems in the United States.

For example, research breakthroughs now allow neurologists to successfully treat stroke patients with clotbusting medication proven to reduce deaths and decrease disability. Research developments have also produced new medications that relieve migraines, slow the progression of multiple sclerosis and improve movement in Parkinson's patients. These are just a few of the many advances gained from research that are improving the lives of millions of men and women around the world suffering from neurological disorders.

III. Answer the questions:

1.

What is neurology?

2. What does nervous system include?

3. What is a neurologist?

4. What patients may use a neurologist as their principal care physician?

5. When a neurologist would act in a consulting role?

6. Can neurologists perform surgery?

7. What are common neurological disorders?

Акушерлік. Гинекологиялық.// Грамматикалық материалдарды жүйелеу: герундиялар жүйелері және түрлері.// Obstetrics and gynecology

Obstetrics and gynecology is a medical specialty which focuses on the care of women. Obstetrics focuses on childbirth, providing prenatal care and pregnancy support along with post-partum care, while gynecology is geared towards general female healthcare, with a focus on the female reproductive organs. A specialist in obstetrics is called an obstetrician, while a specialist in gynecology is a gynecologist.

Although these two specialties are lumped together because they both deal with caring for women, obstetrics and gynecology are very different. Many physicians who study these specialties ending up focusing on one or the other, and there are a number of subspecialties in this discipline which can be focused on as well. These specialties include maternal-fetal care, in which an obstetrician manages a high-risk pregnancy, along with family planning and reproductive endocrinology, the study of the hormones related to the reproductive system.

Casually, a practitioner of obstetrics and gynecology might be called an ob/gyn. Many ob/gyns are women, although many talented male physicians work in this discipline as well. Because obstetrics and gynecology deals with sensitive female issues, some patients prefer to work with female physicians, especially patients who are concerned about modesty and propriety. In rural areas, basic obstetrics and gynecology services may be offered by general practitioners, who lack specific training but can still offer needed services to their patients.

Medical practice as an ob/gyn is incredibly varied. Many ob/gyns find their work very rewarding, since it involves helping women to live healthy, active lives. The varied subspecialties in this discipline allow physicians to focus on issues which range from geriatric gynecology to reconstructive surgery. Obstetrics and gynecology also carries its fair share of interesting medical puzzles and challenging cases, and while some specialists may look down on this discipline, it is actually extremely demanding.

A doctor who wants to work in obstetrics and gynecology must first complete four years of medical school, followed by a residency in this discipline. If the doctor wants to focus on a subspecialty like gynecological surgery or infertility treatment, an additional residency is required. Unfortunately for people interested in obstetrics, malpractice insurance rates for obstetrics are very high, due to the risks inherent in this profession. This is especially true for maternal-fetal care providers, since they handle extremely dangerous pregnancies with a high potential for complications.

Obstetrics and gynecology is a medical specialty which focuses on the care of women. Obstetrics focuses on childbirth, providing prenatal care and pregnancy support along with post-partum care, while gynecology is geared towards general female healthcare, with a focus on the female reproductive organs. A specialist in obstetrics is called an obstetrician, while a specialist in gynecology is a gynecologist.

Although these two specialties are lumped together because they both deal with caring for women, obstetrics and gynecology are very different. Many physicians who study these specialties ending up focusing on one or the other, and there are a number of subspecialties in this discipline which can be focused on as well. These specialties include maternal-fetal care, in which an obstetrician manages a high-risk pregnancy, along with family planning and reproductive endocrinology, the study of the hormones related to the reproductive system.

Casually, a practitioner of obstetrics and gynecology might be called an ob/gyn. Many ob/gyns are women, although many talented male physicians work in this discipline as well. Because obstetrics and gynecology deals with sensitive female issues, some patients prefer to work with female physicians, especially patients who are concerned about modesty and propriety. In rural areas, basic obstetrics and gynecology services may be offered by general practitioners, who lack specific training but can still offer needed services to their patients.

Medical practice as an ob/gyn is incredibly varied. Many ob/gyns find their work very rewarding, since it involves helping women to live healthy, active lives. The varied subspecialties in this discipline allow physicians to focus on issues which range from geriatric gynecology to reconstructive surgery. Obstetrics and gynecology also carries its fair share of interesting medical puzzles and challenging cases, and while some specialists may look down on this discipline, it is actually extremely demanding.

A doctor who wants to work in obstetrics and gynecology must first complete four years of medical school, followed by a residency in this discipline. If the doctor wants to focus on a subspecialty like gynecological surgery or infertility treatment, an additional residency is required. Unfortunately for people interested in obstetrics, malpractice insurance rates for obstetrics are very high, due to the risks inherent in this profession. This is especially true for maternal-fetal care providers, since they handle extremely dangerous pregnancies with a high potential for complications.

1. Answer the questions

1. What is obstetrics and gynecology?

2. What does obstetrics focus on?

3. What does gynecology focus on?

4. What do these specialties include?

5. Why are these specialties lumped together?

6. What must the person complete to work in obstetrics and gynecology?

7. What is to difference between obstetrics and gynecology?

Офтальмология.// Грамматикалық материалдарды жүйелеу: инфинитив, оның түрлері//Ophthalmology

Ophthalmology is the branch of medicine that deals with the anatomy, physiology and diseases of the eye. An ophthalmologist is a specialist in medical and surgical eye problems. Since ophthalmologists perform operations on eyes, they are considered to be both surgical and medical specialists.

Although blinding eye diseases may occur in any age, they are much more common after 40. During the 40’s also, presbyopia begins to trouble the average person. All too often considerable sight is lost from uveitis, glaucoma and other serious eye conditions while the individual attributes his lack of clear vision merely to the need of a pair of glasses. It is particularly important that ophthalmologists who examine individuals in this age group make use of the ophthalmoscope, which will often uncover not only signs of eye disease but also evidence of such conditions as hypertension, diabetes, atherosclerosis, nephritis, and the leukemias.

One of the most common eye diseases is glaucoma. Glaucoma is the cause of about 12 per cent of all blindness in the United States, and the incidence of this condition appears to be increasing.

Chronic simple glaucoma develops so gradually, so insidiously that the individual may lose the considerable amount of peripheral vision before he develops symptoms sufficient to bring him to any doctor. There may be occasional headaches or eye pain in dim light, in the evening, looking a TV, at the movies or at other times when illumination is reduced. There may be headaches or eye pain upon awakening in the morning. Rarely is eye trouble suspected at this stage. Not until later, usually, does the patient complain of halos or rainbows around light. Sometimes in the early stages the patient is not quite satisfied with his glasses and will have them changed several times.

The patient may also have an uncomfortable feeling in his eye, blurred vision, or tearing in times of excitement or worry, since emotional upset appear to produce the elevation of the ocular tension of glaucoma patient. This dangerously mild course may last for months or even for two or three years before the patient becomes aware of a defect in side vision or before there is loss of central vision.

If glaucoma is recognized and treated properly in early stages the patient has an excellent chance of preserving useful vision, although he will require observation and treatment for the rest of his life.

There is much that the ophthalmologist can do, particularly among the patients who are over 40, that will lead to the detection of glaucoma much earlier than is now the case. Six points which have been recommended are: 1) ask patient about the occurrence of occasional blurring or clouding of vision, seeing rainbow effects around a distant light, one-sided headaches, discomfort in or around the eyes after excitement or worry, or under reduced illumination. Inquire if he experiences difficulty in reading despite prescribed glasses; 2) ask if there is a case of glaucoma in the family; 3) measure acuity of vision. Causes of lowered vision in one or both eyes should be investigated; 4) note size of pupils and their reaction to light. Unequal or sluggish reaction should be investigated; 5) examine each eye with ophthalmoscope to see if optic disks appear pale or cupped; 6) check ocular tension and test visual fields. Digital palpation for tension and confrontation test for fields are crude and of value only in advanced cases.

Nowadays both laser and conventional surgeries are performed to treat glaucoma. Surgery is the primary therapy for those with congenital glaucoma. Generally, these operations are a temporary solution, as there is not yet a cure for glaucoma.

1. Answer the questions:

1. What is ophthalmology?

2. How chronic simple glaucoma develop?

3. What are the main compliances of a patient with glaucoma?

4. Has the patient an excellent chance of preserving useful vision if glaucoma is recognized and treated properly in early stages?

5. What should an ophthalmologist ask a patient?

6. What should an ophthalmologist measure, examine and check?

7. What is performed to treat glaucoma?

Онкология.// Грамматикалық материалдарды жүйелеу: есімше, оның түрлері.// Oncology

Oncology, (meaning bulk, mass, or tumor, and the suffix ''logy'', meaning "study of") is a branch of medicine that deals with tumors (cancer). A medical professional who practices oncology is an ''oncologist''.

Oncology is concerned with: the diagnosis of any cancer in a person, therapy (E).g., surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and other modalities), followup of cancer patients after successful treatment, palliative care of patients with terminal malignancies, ethical questions surrounding cancer carE). Screening efforts: of populations, or of the relatives of patients (in types of cancer that are thought to have a hereditary basis, such as breast cancer).

The most important diagnostic tool remains the medical history: the character of the complaints and any specific symptoms (fatigue, weight loss, unexplained anemia, fever of unknown origin, paraneoplastic phenomena and other signs). Often a physical examination will reveal the location of a malignancy.

Diagnostic methods include:

Biopsy, either incisional or excisional; endoscopy, either upper or lower gastrointestinal, bronchoscopy, or nasendoscopy; Xrays, CT scanning, MRI scanning, ultrasound and other radiological techniques; Scintigraphy, Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography, Positron emission tomography and other methods of nuclear medicine; Blood tests, including Tumor markers, which can increase the suspicion of certain types of tumors or even be pathognomonic of a particular diseasE).

Apart from in diagnosis, these modalities (especially imaging by CT scanning) are often used to determine operability, i.E). whether it is surgically possible to remove a tumor in its entirety.

Generally, a "tissue diagnosis" (from a biopsy) is considered essential for the proper identification of cancer. When this is not possible, "empirical therapy" (without an exact diagnosis) may be given, based on the available evidence (E).g. history, xrays and scans.)

Occasionally, a metastatic lump or pathological lymph node is found (typically in the neck) for which a primary tumor cannot be founD). This situation is referred to as "carcinoma of unknown primary", and again, treatment is empirical based on past experience of the most likely origin.

An oncologist is a physician whose duty is to diagnose and treat cancer. These specialized doctors explain the process of the disease and what stage it is in at the time of diagnosis to the patient, discuss treatment options and recommend the best treatment plan. Oncologists can specialize in medical, surgical, radiation or pediatriC).
A medical oncologist is a doctor who diagnoses and treats the entire spectrum of cancerous diseases. They specialize mainly in medicinal treatments, like chemotherapy, analgesics and hormones (medicines to reduce pain) for the management of cancer. They also monitor and take care of the patient through the course of the diseasE). Surgical oncologists specialize in many types of tumors, most commonly being breast cancer, endocrine and melanoma tumors. This job requires special training from general surgery residencies. A radiation oncologist specializes in treating various cancers using radiation therapies. These oncologists use electron and gamma ray equipment to destroy cancerous cells. Radiation therapy is commonly used on most kinds of cancers, including breast cancer, prostate cancer and skin cancer. Pediatric oncologists specialize in diagnosing and treating cancer in children. This job is one of the most challenging roles because many cancers still have a high mortality ratE). Losing a patient is extremely hard to overcome emotionally, especially when the patient is a chilD). It takes a person with exceptionally strong commitment and a gentle bedside manner to accept this type of responsibility.

1. Answer the questions

1. What is oncology?

2. What is oncology concerned with?

3. What is the most important diagnostic tool?

4. What does operability mean?

5. When is “tissue diagnosis” used?

6. What is oncologist?

7. What is a surgical oncologist?

Грамматикалық материалдарды жүйелеу: есімшенін өздік айналымы және оның сөйлемдегі жүйелері.// Cardiology

Cardiology is a medical specialty dealing with disorders of the heart. Cardiology is a very serious part of centre’s services. The cardiology department provides patients with a full range of diagnostic procedures including EKG and others. These procedures are supervised by trained physicians who are called cardiologists, who are the specialists in Echocardiography, which is performed in centers. Working together with a laboratory and X-ray facilities, a cardiologist can diagnose and treat patients who have problems with chest pain, blood pressure, arrhythmias, congenital heart defect, coronary artery disease, heart failure, valvular heart disease, electrophysiology and other heart problems. Treatments are designed along the most advanced methods and are always coordinated with every patient’s personal physician. An inpatient service is also equipped with different facilities whenever a more serious problem occurs.

There are some subspecialties of cardiology:

• Cardiac electrophysiology is studying of the electrical properties and conduction diseases of the heart.

• Echocardiography is using of ultrasound to study the mechanical function of the heart.

• Interventional cardiology is using of catheters for the treatment of structural and ischemic diseases of the heart.

• Nuclear cardiology is using of nuclear medicine to visualize the uptake of an isotope by the heart using radioactive sources.

The primary responsibility of the heart is to pump blood around the body. The heart is a muscle that squeezes blood and functions like a pump. Each part of the heart is susceptible to failure or dysfunction and the heart could be divided into the mechanical and the electrical.

The electrical part of the heart is centered on the periodic contraction of the muscle cells that is caused by the cardiac pacemaker. Dysfunction of the electrical system manifests in many ways and includes Parkinson syndrome, ventricular fibrillation and heart block.

The mechanical part of the heart is centered on the fluidic movement of blood and the functionality of the heart as a pump. The mechanical part is ultimately purpose of the heart and many of the disorders of the heart disrupt the ability to move blood.

There exist other disorders of the heart that disrupt both the electrical and the mechanical properties of the heart. A more poignant disorder is myocardial infarction or heart attack.

Disorders of the heart lead to heart disease and cardiovascular disease and they lead to a significant number of deaths: cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of deaths and caused 30% of all deaths in 2008.

Эндокринология.// Грамматикалық материалдарды жүйелеу: сөйлемдегі күрделі толықтауыш.// Endocrinology

Endocrinology (from Greek  endo, "within" "to separate"; and , -logia) is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine, its diseases, and its specific secretions called hormones, the integration of developmental events such as proliferation, growth, and differentiation (including histogenesis and organogenesis) and the coordination of metabolism, respiration, excretion, movement, reproduction, and sensory depend on chemical cues, substances synthesized and secreted by specialized cells.

Endocrinology is concerned with the study of the biosynthesis, storage, chemistry, and physiological function of hormones and with the cells of the endocrine glands and tissues that secrete them.

The endocrine system consists of several glands, all and in different parts of the body, that secrete hormones directly into the blood rather than into a duct system. Hormones have many different functions and modes of action; one hormone may have several effects on different target organs, and, conversely, one target organ may be affected by more than one hormone.

In the original 1902 definition by Bayliss and Starling, they specified that, to be classified as a hormone, a chemical must be produced by an organ, be released (in small amounts) into the blood, and be transported by the blood to a distant organ to exert its specific function. This definition holds for most "classical" hormones, but there are also paracrine mechanisms (chemical communication between cells within a tissue or organ), autocrine signals (a chemical that acts on the same cell), and intracrine signals (a chemical that acts within the same cell).  

The medical specialty of endocrinology involves the diagnostic evaluation of a wide variety of symptoms and variations and the long-term management of disorders of deficiency or excess of one or more hormones.

The diagnosis and treatment of endocrine diseases are guided by laboratory tests to a greater extent than for most specialties. Many diseases are investigated through excitation/stimulation or inhibition/suppression testing.

This might involve injection with a stimulating agent to test the function of an endocrine organ. Blood is then sampled to assess the changes of the relevant hormones or metabolites. An endocrinologist needs extensive knowledge of clinical chemistry and biochemistry to understand the uses and limitations of the investigations.

Endocrinology involves caring for the person biology as well as the nucleus the enzymes as well as the disease. Most endocrine disorders are chronic diseases that need life-long care. Some of the most common endocrine diseases include diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism and the metabolic syndrome. Care of diabetes, obesity and other chronic diseases necessitates understanding the patient at the personal and social level as well as the molecular, and the physician–patient relationship can be an important therapeutic process.

Гастроэнтерология.// Грамматикалық материалдарды жүйелеу: күрделі бастауыш.//Gastroenterology

Gastroenterology is the medical study of the digestive system and related disorders. Problems with the stomach, intestines, esophagus, colon, and bowels are all part of the study of gastroenterology. A gastroenterological specialist has typically spent several years studying internal and digestive medicine in addition to regular medical training. The study of digestive ailments has grown immensely with the development of modern medical technology, allowing specialists in this field a multitude of diagnostic and treatment options that were completely unavailable before the 20th century.

The health of the digestive system is crucial to whole body wellness. An improperly functioning digestive system can inhibit proper nutrition, slow down food processing, and lead to system toxicity due to the improper management of bodily waste. Gastroenterology is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of almost all digestive issues, including various forms of cancer, organ damage, ulcers, and abnormally operating digestive and waste systems.

Though gastroenterology has advanced incredibly since the turn of the 20th century, the study and practice of this type of medicine has ancient roots. Before the development of internal scans and modern drug therapy, doctors treating digestive disorders used herbal compounds, dietary regimens, and other ancient remedies meant to improve health. Studies were done by performing autopsies on animals and people to determine how organs functioned and what led to illnesses. Not until the 18th and 19th centuries, however, was technology sufficiently advanced to allow the study of living humans, thus allowing major insights into the field of gastroenterology. With the 19th century development of gastroscopes, tools that allow the visualization of the upper digestive tract, the diagnosis and treatment of digestive ailments began to develop by leaps and bounds.

People who have persistent stomach problems, such as chronic constipation or diarrhea, unexplained cramping, or swelling of the abdomen, may be sent to a gastroenterologist for examination. Esophageal problems, such as difficulty swallowing or persistent acid reflux, may be under the auspices of this type of specialist as well. These doctors have gone beyond basic medical treatment to spend several years specializing, first in general internal medicine, then in the sub-specialty of digestive issues. Though most cannot perform surgery, many are licensed to do minor exploratory procedures.

There are additional specialties that fall under the general heading of gastroenterology, including radiology and oncology. These sub-specialties deal mainly with the diagnosis and treatment of cancer in the digestive tract, including stomach, prostate, and intestinal forms of the disease. Hepatology, which is a related but separate discipline, involves the study of digestion-related organs such as the liver and gallbladder.