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Раздел содержит научно-популярные и общетехнические тексты. Их тематика понятна читателю, независимо от его специальности.Язык статей интересен и прост. Он содержит характерные для английского текста лексические и фразеологические единицы, а также типичные грамматические конструкции (элементарные и сложные обороты: инфинитивные, причастные, герундиальные; бессоюзное соединение придаточных предложений, модальные глаголы и др.). Языковая структура текстов представляет собой эффективный материал для перехода к чтению и переводу оригинальной литературы по специальности. В результате выполнения вопросно-ответных заданий формируется достаточный запас общенаучной и общетехнической лексики. Тематика статей интересна для ведения дискуссий, следовательно, для развития устной речи, коммуникативных умений рассуждать, отстаивать свою точку зрения, опровергать, делать выводы и т.д.Тексты можно использовать для:
Air is considered to be polluted when it contains certain substances in concentrations high enough to cause harm of undesirable effects. The atmosphere is susceptible (подвержена) to pollution from natural sources as well as from human activities. Only pollution caused by human activities, such as industry and transportation is subject to mitigation and control.Beginning in the 19th century, increasing use of fossil fuels intensified the severity and frequency of air-pollution episodes. It was not until the middle of the 20th century, that attempts were made to regulate or limit emissions of air pollutants from stationary or mobile sources (i.e., gasoline – powered highway vehicles) and to control air quality on both regional and local scales. The focus of air pollution regulation in industrialized countries was initially on protecting outdoor air quality. This involved the control of a small number of pollutants known to contribute to urban smog and chronic public health problems. Toward the end of the 20th century, the dangerous effects of trace (ионов) amounts of many other air pollutants were recognized, and emission regulations were implemented. Long-term effects of certain substances on atmospheric chemistry and climate were also observed at that time.Questions to be answered (in writing):
The vertical profile of the engine is reduced as much as possible to achieve a low hood (капот) line and thus an unobstructed view for the driver. Engines are rated (to rate – оценивать) for output by the number of cylinders, cubic-inch displacement (CID – объём), horsepower, and miles per gallon. Single-plate or multiple-disk clutches transfer the engine output to the transmission, drive shaft, rear axle, and rear wheels. Conventional four or five-speed transmission may be manual, semiautomatic, or automatic types, with overdrive available as an optional added speed. Among the numerous types of steering systems are reciprocating-ball, worm-and-sector, or worm-and-roller units. These systems provide vehicle stability in turns and directional control. Suspension (подвеска) coil springs, leaf-springs, air-suspension systems, or torsion bars are used in conjunction with shock absorbers to improve ride comfort and roadability (сцепление). Service brakes may be drum-type on all four wheels, fixed- or floating-caliper types on front wheels, or a combination of both for mechanical manual operation or optional power assist. Parking brakes are usually integrated mechanically with rear-wheel drum service brakes, or they can be a separate drive shaft-type unit. Questions to be answered (in writing):1. What does the term automobile include? 2. What are the available models of passenger cars?3. How are car engines rated?4. What is the difference between service brakes and parking brakes?ChemistryThe science of chemistry includes a study of the properties composition and structure of matter, the changes in structure and composition which matter undergoes, and the accompanying energy changes. Today the objective of a chemist is to aid in the interpretation of the universe. Much progress has been made toward meeting this objective, because much is known about not only the structure and composition of many materials on the Earth, but also about those of the planets, the satellites, the stars, and the materials of interstellar space.The success of chemistry is largely attributed to the use of the scientific method, although not all the discoveries are made by planned research: many of them are made by trial and error and by accident. Nevertheless, the procedure of observation, classification, theorizing, and experimentation to test the theory, runs throughout this entire service. The huge problem of interpreting the universe is considerably simplified by breaking it down to smaller problems by classifying the great variety of materials in the universe into the two great entities, energy and matter. Energy can be classified as potential or kinetic energy, and can be broken down further into such forms of energy as mechanical, electrical, radiant, chemical, and nuclear. Matter can be classified in a number of different ways. One method is in terms of the physical state – solid, liquid, and gas; but probably the most useful method is in terms of composition – elements, compounds, and mixtures.A chemical element is a substance that cannot be broken down to simpler substances by chemical reactions. It is also defined as a substance made of one kind of building block (atom) only. There are only a few more than 100 elements known in the entire universe. A careful study of the elements has indicated that they can be classified into families or groups that further simplify the problem of learning about the universe. This classification is called the periodic table.Questions to be answered (in writing):1. What does the science of CHEMISTRY study?2. How are the discoveries in chemistry made?3. Which are those entities embracing the great variety of materials in the universe?GeologyEarth sciences primarily deal with the history, chemical composition, physical characteristics, and dynamic behavior of solid Earth, fluid streams and oceans, and gaseous atmosphere. Because of the three-phase nature of the Earth system, Earth scientists generally have to consider the interaction of all the three phases – solid, liquid and gaseous – in the most problems that they investigate.The geosciences (geology, geochemistry, and geophysics) are concerned with the solid part of the Earth system. Geology is largely a study of the nature of Earth materials and processes, and how these have interacted through time to leave a record of past events in existing Earthly features and materials. Hence, geologists study minerals, rocks, ore deposits, mineral fuels and fossils, and the long-term effects of terrestrial and oceanic waters and of the atmosphere. They also investigate present processes in order to explain past events.
Geophysics deals with the physical characteristics and dynamic behavior of the Earth system and thus with a diversity of natural phenomena. For example, earthquakes, volcanism, and mountain building throw light on structure and constitution of the Earth’s interior. Study of the magnetic field involves considering the Earth as a self-sustaining dynamo.Man’s entry into the space age calls for a vast increase in knowledge of the environment through which vehicles and living things will go and return. Many aspects of the Earth’s atmosphere are now being studied intensively for the first time. Many important characteristics of the ocean were discovered, and with instruments and facilities developed during World War II, oceanographic research has been going on at a quickened pace.Questions to be answered (in writing):1. Why is the nature of the Earth system considered as the three-phase one?2. How can the geologists explain the past events?
Metallurgy occupies a position of the juncture of physics, chemistry, mechanical and chemical engineering. It also borders electrical, civil, aeronautical, and nuclear engineering.Questions to be answered (in writing):1. What is metallurgy? 2. What are the subdivisions of the metallurgy field?3. What other fields and subjects does metallurgy border?MiningA unique feature of mining is that mineral deposits undergoing extraction are not renewable (невосполнимы) as are other natural resources. This depletability of mineral deposits not only requires that mining companies must periodically find new deposits and constantly improve their technology, but calls for conservational, industrial and political policies to serve the public interests. Depletion means that the supplies of any particular mineral must be extracted from ever-lower-grade sources. Consciousness of depletion causes many countries to be possessive about their mineral resources and jealous of their exploration by foreigners. Some would reduce the scale of domestic production and increase imports in order to extend the lives of domestic deposits. Mining is divided into three basic methods: opencast, underground, and fluid mining. Opencast, or surface, mining is done either from pits or gouged out slopes or by strip mining, which involves extraction from a series of successive parallel trenches. Dredging is a type of strip mining, with digging done from barges. Hydraulic mining uses jets of water to excavate material.Underground mining involves extraction from beneath the surface, from depths as great as 10,000 ft., by any of several methods.Fluid mining is extraction from natural brines, lakes, oceans, or underground waters. Most fluid mining is done by wells. A recent type of well mining is to wash insoluble material loose by underground jets and pump the slurry to the surface. The activities of the mining industry begin with exploration, which has become a complicated, expensive, and highly technical task. After suitable deposits have been found, development of mining begins.Questions to be answered (in writing):1. What does depletion of mineral deposits mean?2. What does the mining industry begin with?3. What are basic methods of mining? 4. What is dredging? Hydraulic mining? ComputerComputer is a device that receives, processes, and presents information. The two basic types of computers are analog and digital.The most prevalent computer is the simple mechanical analog computer, in which gears, levers, ratchets, and pawls perform mathematical operations. The two most common examples of the simple mechanical analog are the speedometer, and the watt-hour meter, used to measure accumulated electrical usage. A digital computer uses symbolic representations of its variables. The arithmetic unit is constructed to follow the rules of one number systems. The digital computer uses individual discrete states to represent the digits of the number system chosen. The most prevalent special-purpose mechanical digital computer is the supermarket cash register. By using electronics, large general-purpose digital computers have been constructed. Frequently two or more computers are interconnected to form a computing system. They receive input in the form of preperforated punched cards, electrical signals from digital transolucers, or directly from input keyboards. They process these data in accordance with the rules of procedure and present the output as visual symbols on the printed page, characters on the face of a cathode-ray tube, signals on a communication line, or as input to a digital action device.Typically, a general-purpose electronic digital computer operates on numbers using both decimal and binary number systems, and on symbolic data expressed in an alphabet.Since 1950 the computer industry has grown into a multibillion dollar business employing hundreds of thousands of people to build or maintain computers and to program or operate them to perform commercial data-processing tasks or computations related to science or engineering.Questions to be answered (in writing):1. What is computer?2. What is the difference between digital and analog computer? 3. How does an electronic digital computer operate?4. When did the computer industry grow into a great business?
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тренинга формальных признаков структур при изучении грамматического справочника, например, просмотрите текст и опознайте существительные по суффиксам, объясните их значения или просмотрите текст и опознайте глаголы-сказуемые по их формальным признакам, назовите модели, по которым построены эти предложения и т.д.; -
«грамматического» чтения и учебного письменного либо устного перевода; -
«собственно» чтения без перевода на русский язык, на понимание главной мысли текста или другой информации, посредством целого спектра заданий таких как множественный выбор, верное/неверное утверждение, дополнение недостающей информации и т.д.; -
чтения вслух – беглого произношения фраз с соблюдением правил ударения и ритма в связном тексте; -
устной и письменной речи – самостоятельного построения высказываний в заданной ситуации.
Air is considered to be polluted when it contains certain substances in concentrations high enough to cause harm of undesirable effects. The atmosphere is susceptible (подвержена) to pollution from natural sources as well as from human activities. Only pollution caused by human activities, such as industry and transportation is subject to mitigation and control.Beginning in the 19th century, increasing use of fossil fuels intensified the severity and frequency of air-pollution episodes. It was not until the middle of the 20th century, that attempts were made to regulate or limit emissions of air pollutants from stationary or mobile sources (i.e., gasoline – powered highway vehicles) and to control air quality on both regional and local scales. The focus of air pollution regulation in industrialized countries was initially on protecting outdoor air quality. This involved the control of a small number of pollutants known to contribute to urban smog and chronic public health problems. Toward the end of the 20th century, the dangerous effects of trace (ионов) amounts of many other air pollutants were recognized, and emission regulations were implemented. Long-term effects of certain substances on atmospheric chemistry and climate were also observed at that time.Questions to be answered (in writing):
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Which air components predominate in clean air of a healthful environment? -
When is air considered to be polluted? -
What kind of pollutions is subject (подлежит) to mitigation and control?
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Where is oil generated? -
What are the types of sediments contained in sedimentary basins? -
How much petroleum is available in reservoir rocks (of the world)?
The vertical profile of the engine is reduced as much as possible to achieve a low hood (капот) line and thus an unobstructed view for the driver. Engines are rated (to rate – оценивать) for output by the number of cylinders, cubic-inch displacement (CID – объём), horsepower, and miles per gallon. Single-plate or multiple-disk clutches transfer the engine output to the transmission, drive shaft, rear axle, and rear wheels. Conventional four or five-speed transmission may be manual, semiautomatic, or automatic types, with overdrive available as an optional added speed. Among the numerous types of steering systems are reciprocating-ball, worm-and-sector, or worm-and-roller units. These systems provide vehicle stability in turns and directional control. Suspension (подвеска) coil springs, leaf-springs, air-suspension systems, or torsion bars are used in conjunction with shock absorbers to improve ride comfort and roadability (сцепление). Service brakes may be drum-type on all four wheels, fixed- or floating-caliper types on front wheels, or a combination of both for mechanical manual operation or optional power assist. Parking brakes are usually integrated mechanically with rear-wheel drum service brakes, or they can be a separate drive shaft-type unit. Questions to be answered (in writing):1. What does the term automobile include? 2. What are the available models of passenger cars?3. How are car engines rated?4. What is the difference between service brakes and parking brakes?ChemistryThe science of chemistry includes a study of the properties composition and structure of matter, the changes in structure and composition which matter undergoes, and the accompanying energy changes. Today the objective of a chemist is to aid in the interpretation of the universe. Much progress has been made toward meeting this objective, because much is known about not only the structure and composition of many materials on the Earth, but also about those of the planets, the satellites, the stars, and the materials of interstellar space.The success of chemistry is largely attributed to the use of the scientific method, although not all the discoveries are made by planned research: many of them are made by trial and error and by accident. Nevertheless, the procedure of observation, classification, theorizing, and experimentation to test the theory, runs throughout this entire service. The huge problem of interpreting the universe is considerably simplified by breaking it down to smaller problems by classifying the great variety of materials in the universe into the two great entities, energy and matter. Energy can be classified as potential or kinetic energy, and can be broken down further into such forms of energy as mechanical, electrical, radiant, chemical, and nuclear. Matter can be classified in a number of different ways. One method is in terms of the physical state – solid, liquid, and gas; but probably the most useful method is in terms of composition – elements, compounds, and mixtures.A chemical element is a substance that cannot be broken down to simpler substances by chemical reactions. It is also defined as a substance made of one kind of building block (atom) only. There are only a few more than 100 elements known in the entire universe. A careful study of the elements has indicated that they can be classified into families or groups that further simplify the problem of learning about the universe. This classification is called the periodic table.Questions to be answered (in writing):1. What does the science of CHEMISTRY study?2. How are the discoveries in chemistry made?3. Which are those entities embracing the great variety of materials in the universe?GeologyEarth sciences primarily deal with the history, chemical composition, physical characteristics, and dynamic behavior of solid Earth, fluid streams and oceans, and gaseous atmosphere. Because of the three-phase nature of the Earth system, Earth scientists generally have to consider the interaction of all the three phases – solid, liquid and gaseous – in the most problems that they investigate.The geosciences (geology, geochemistry, and geophysics) are concerned with the solid part of the Earth system. Geology is largely a study of the nature of Earth materials and processes, and how these have interacted through time to leave a record of past events in existing Earthly features and materials. Hence, geologists study minerals, rocks, ore deposits, mineral fuels and fossils, and the long-term effects of terrestrial and oceanic waters and of the atmosphere. They also investigate present processes in order to explain past events.
Geophysics deals with the physical characteristics and dynamic behavior of the Earth system and thus with a diversity of natural phenomena. For example, earthquakes, volcanism, and mountain building throw light on structure and constitution of the Earth’s interior. Study of the magnetic field involves considering the Earth as a self-sustaining dynamo.Man’s entry into the space age calls for a vast increase in knowledge of the environment through which vehicles and living things will go and return. Many aspects of the Earth’s atmosphere are now being studied intensively for the first time. Many important characteristics of the ocean were discovered, and with instruments and facilities developed during World War II, oceanographic research has been going on at a quickened pace.Questions to be answered (in writing):1. Why is the nature of the Earth system considered as the three-phase one?2. How can the geologists explain the past events?
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Which one of the geosciences deals with studying a diversity of natural phenomena?
Metallurgy occupies a position of the juncture of physics, chemistry, mechanical and chemical engineering. It also borders electrical, civil, aeronautical, and nuclear engineering.Questions to be answered (in writing):1. What is metallurgy? 2. What are the subdivisions of the metallurgy field?3. What other fields and subjects does metallurgy border?MiningA unique feature of mining is that mineral deposits undergoing extraction are not renewable (невосполнимы) as are other natural resources. This depletability of mineral deposits not only requires that mining companies must periodically find new deposits and constantly improve their technology, but calls for conservational, industrial and political policies to serve the public interests. Depletion means that the supplies of any particular mineral must be extracted from ever-lower-grade sources. Consciousness of depletion causes many countries to be possessive about their mineral resources and jealous of their exploration by foreigners. Some would reduce the scale of domestic production and increase imports in order to extend the lives of domestic deposits. Mining is divided into three basic methods: opencast, underground, and fluid mining. Opencast, or surface, mining is done either from pits or gouged out slopes or by strip mining, which involves extraction from a series of successive parallel trenches. Dredging is a type of strip mining, with digging done from barges. Hydraulic mining uses jets of water to excavate material.Underground mining involves extraction from beneath the surface, from depths as great as 10,000 ft., by any of several methods.Fluid mining is extraction from natural brines, lakes, oceans, or underground waters. Most fluid mining is done by wells. A recent type of well mining is to wash insoluble material loose by underground jets and pump the slurry to the surface. The activities of the mining industry begin with exploration, which has become a complicated, expensive, and highly technical task. After suitable deposits have been found, development of mining begins.Questions to be answered (in writing):1. What does depletion of mineral deposits mean?2. What does the mining industry begin with?3. What are basic methods of mining? 4. What is dredging? Hydraulic mining? ComputerComputer is a device that receives, processes, and presents information. The two basic types of computers are analog and digital.The most prevalent computer is the simple mechanical analog computer, in which gears, levers, ratchets, and pawls perform mathematical operations. The two most common examples of the simple mechanical analog are the speedometer, and the watt-hour meter, used to measure accumulated electrical usage. A digital computer uses symbolic representations of its variables. The arithmetic unit is constructed to follow the rules of one number systems. The digital computer uses individual discrete states to represent the digits of the number system chosen. The most prevalent special-purpose mechanical digital computer is the supermarket cash register. By using electronics, large general-purpose digital computers have been constructed. Frequently two or more computers are interconnected to form a computing system. They receive input in the form of preperforated punched cards, electrical signals from digital transolucers, or directly from input keyboards. They process these data in accordance with the rules of procedure and present the output as visual symbols on the printed page, characters on the face of a cathode-ray tube, signals on a communication line, or as input to a digital action device.Typically, a general-purpose electronic digital computer operates on numbers using both decimal and binary number systems, and on symbolic data expressed in an alphabet.Since 1950 the computer industry has grown into a multibillion dollar business employing hundreds of thousands of people to build or maintain computers and to program or operate them to perform commercial data-processing tasks or computations related to science or engineering.Questions to be answered (in writing):1. What is computer?2. What is the difference between digital and analog computer? 3. How does an electronic digital computer operate?4. When did the computer industry grow into a great business?