Раздел содержит научно-популярные и общетехнические тексты. Их тематика понятна читателю, независимо от его специальности.

Язык статей интересен и прост. Он содержит характерные для английского текста лексические и фразеологические единицы, а также типичные грамматические конструкции (элементарные и сложные обороты: инфинитивные, причастные, герундиальные; бессоюзное соединение придаточных предложений, модальные глаголы и др.). Языковая структура текстов представляет собой эффективный материал для перехода к чтению и переводу оригинальной литературы по специальности. В результате выполнения вопросно-ответных заданий формируется достаточный запас общенаучной и общетехнической лексики. Тематика статей интересна для ведения дискуссий, следовательно, для развития устной речи, коммуникативных умений рассуждать, отстаивать свою точку зрения, опровергать, делать выводы и т.д.
Тексты можно использовать для:

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  тренинга формальных признаков структур при изучении грамматического справочника, например, просмотрите текст и опознайте существительные по суффиксам, объясните их значения или просмотрите текст и опознайте глаголы-сказуемые по их формальным признакам, назовите модели, по которым построены эти предложения и т.д.;
  
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  «грамматического» чтения и учебного письменного либо устного перевода;
  
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  «собственно» чтения без перевода на русский язык, на понимание главной мысли текста или другой информации, посредством целого спектра заданий таких как множественный выбор, верное/неверное утверждение, дополнение недостающей информации и т.д.;
  
• 
  чтения вслух – беглого произношения фраз с соблюдением правил ударения и ритма в связном тексте;
  
• 
  устной и письменной речи – самостоятельного построения высказываний в заданной ситуации.
  

Air-Pollution Control
Clean air, an essential component of a healthful environment, is a mixture of many different gases. Two gases predominate: nitrogen, which makes up 78 percent of the volume clean dry air, and oxygen, which makes up 21%. In the Earth’s atmosphere, water vapour is also a significant component but the most variable one, ranging from 0,01 to 4% by volume, its concentration in air varying daily and seasonally, as well as geographically.

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Air is considered to be polluted when it contains certain substances in concentrations high enough to cause harm of undesirable effects. The atmosphere is susceptible (подвержена) to pollution from natural sources as well as from human activities. Only pollution caused by human activities, such as industry and transportation is subject to mitigation and control.

Beginning in the 19^th century, increasing use of fossil fuels intensified the severity and frequency of air-pollution episodes. It was not until the middle of the 20^th century, that attempts were made to regulate or limit emissions of air pollutants from stationary or mobile sources (i.e., gasoline – powered highway vehicles) and to control air quality on both regional and local scales.

The focus of air pollution regulation in industrialized countries was initially on protecting outdoor air quality. This involved the control of a small number of pollutants known to contribute to urban smog and chronic public health problems. Toward the end of the 20^th century, the dangerous effects of trace (ионов) amounts of many other air pollutants were recognized, and emission regulations were implemented. Long-term effects of certain substances on atmospheric chemistry and climate were also observed at that time.
Questions to be answered (in writing):

1. 
   Which air components predominate in clean air of a healthful environment?
   
2. 
   When is air considered to be polluted?
   
3. 
   What kind of pollutions is subject (подлежит) to mitigation and control?
   

Generation of Oil
Oil is generated in sedimentary basins. These basins are shallow depressions on the continents that have intermittently (прерывисто, перемежаясь) been covered with seawater, or offshore basins on continental shelves. They are hundreds of square kilometers in area and contain sediments of three types: 1) rock particles varying from sands to clay muds, which were eroded from mountains and were carried to the basins by streams; 2) biochemical and chemical precipitates such as limestone gypsum, anhydrite; 3) organic matter from the plants and animals that lived in the sea or were carried in by rivers. The third type of sediment, the organic matter, is the source of petroleum. Evidence (свидетельство) for this is the fact that petroleum contains small amounts of several substances that could have come only from living things. Examples of these are porphyry related to (родственный) hemi and chlorophyll.

It is believed that oil is generated from organic matter in two ways. A small amount probably less than 10 % comes directly from the hydrocarbons (углеводородные соединения) that marine organisms form as part of their living cells. The second process, by which about 90 % of the oil is formed, involves the formation of hydrocarbons from the decay and alteration of buried, organic matter. Nearly all of the hydrocarbons containing up to 10 carbon atoms are formed in this manner. By the time the sediments are buried to depths of 500–700 m, enough hydrocarbons have been generated to enable a commercial oil field to form under favourable accumulation conditions. It is estimated there are 6000x10⁹ tons of petroleum in the reservoir rocks of the continents and continental shelves of the world.
Questions to be answered (in writing):

1. 
   Where is oil generated?
   
2. 
   What are the types of sediments contained in sedimentary basins?
   
3. 
   How much petroleum is available in reservoir rocks (of the world)?
   

Automobile
Automobile is a general term for a self-propelled, trackless (нерельсовый; негусеничный), personal or public carrier, which includes passenger cars, recreational vehicles, taxis and buses used to transport people in cities, on highways, or across country.

Passenger cars are available in several body styles and in various sizes. Passenger cars are equipped with four-stroke internal combustion engines as the source of motive power. Many commercial vehicles are equipped with diesel engines. Diesel engines are used successfully in several models of passenger car, too.

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The vertical profile of the engine is reduced as much as possible to achieve a low hood (капот) line and thus an unobstructed view for the driver. Engines are rated (to rate – оценивать) for output by the number of cylinders, cubic-inch displacement (CID – объём), horsepower, and miles per gallon.

Single-plate or multiple-disk clutches transfer the engine output to the transmission, drive shaft, rear axle, and rear wheels. Conventional four or five-speed transmission may be manual, semiautomatic, or automatic types, with overdrive available as an optional added speed. Among the numerous types of steering systems are reciprocating-ball, worm-and-sector, or worm-and-roller units. These systems provide vehicle stability in turns and directional control. Suspension (подвеска) coil springs, leaf-springs, air-suspension systems, or torsion bars are used in conjunction with shock absorbers to improve ride comfort and roadability (сцепление). Service brakes may be drum-type on all four wheels, fixed- or floating-caliper types on front wheels, or a combination of both for mechanical manual operation or optional power assist. Parking brakes are usually integrated mechanically with rear-wheel drum service brakes, or they can be a separate drive shaft-type unit.
Questions to be answered (in writing):

1. What does the term automobile include?

2. What are the available models of passenger cars?

3. How are car engines rated?

4. What is the difference between service brakes and parking brakes?

Chemistry
The science of chemistry includes a study of the properties composition and structure of matter, the changes in structure and composition which matter undergoes, and the accompanying energy changes. Today the objective of a chemist is to aid in the interpretation of the universe. Much progress has been made toward meeting this objective, because much is known about not only the structure and composition of many materials on the Earth, but also about those of the planets, the satellites, the stars, and the materials of interstellar space.

The success of chemistry is largely attributed to the use of the scientific method, although not all the discoveries are made by planned research: many of them are made by trial and error and by accident. Nevertheless, the procedure of observation, classification, theorizing, and experimentation to test the theory, runs throughout this entire service. The huge problem of interpreting the universe is considerably simplified by breaking it down to smaller problems by classifying the great variety of materials in the universe into the two great entities, energy and matter. Energy can be classified as potential or kinetic energy, and can be broken down further into such forms of energy as mechanical, electrical, radiant, chemical, and nuclear. Matter can be classified in a number of different ways. One method is in terms of the physical state – solid, liquid, and gas; but probably the most useful method is in terms of composition – elements, compounds, and mixtures.

A chemical element is a substance that cannot be broken down to simpler substances by chemical reactions. It is also defined as a substance made of one kind of building block (atom) only. There are only a few more than 100 elements known in the entire universe. A careful study of the elements has indicated that they can be classified into families or groups that further simplify the problem of learning about the universe. This classification is called the periodic table.
Questions to be answered (in writing):

1. What does the science of CHEMISTRY study?

2. How are the discoveries in chemistry made?

3. Which are those entities embracing the great variety of materials in the universe?

Geology
Earth sciences primarily deal with the history, chemical composition, physical characteristics, and dynamic behavior of solid Earth, fluid streams and oceans, and gaseous atmosphere. Because of the three-phase nature of the Earth system, Earth scientists generally have to consider the interaction of all the three phases – solid, liquid and gaseous – in the most problems that they investigate.

The geosciences (geology, geochemistry, and geophysics) are concerned with the solid part of the Earth system. Geology is largely a study of the nature of Earth materials and processes, and how these have interacted through time to leave a record of past events in existing Earthly features and materials. Hence, geologists study minerals, rocks, ore deposits, mineral fuels and fossils, and the long-term effects of terrestrial and oceanic waters and of the atmosphere. They also investigate present processes in order to explain past events.

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Geophysics deals with the physical characteristics and dynamic behavior of the Earth system and thus with a diversity of natural phenomena. For example, earthquakes, volcanism, and mountain building throw light on structure and constitution of the Earth’s interior. Study of the magnetic field involves considering the Earth as a self-sustaining dynamo.

Man’s entry into the space age calls for a vast increase in knowledge of the environment through which vehicles and living things will go and return. Many aspects of the Earth’s atmosphere are now being studied intensively for the first time. Many important characteristics of the ocean were discovered, and with instruments and facilities developed during World War II, oceanographic research has been going on at a quickened pace.
Questions to be answered (in writing):

1. Why is the nature of the Earth system considered as the three-phase one?

2. How can the geologists explain the past events?

2. 
   Which one of the geosciences deals with studying a diversity of natural phenomena?
   

4. What are the factors accelerating the geo-research?

Mechanism and a Machine
Mechanisms are combinations of moving members such as links, gears, cams, belts, chains, and springs held in a rigid frame. In general, a mechanism is defined as an apparatus for mechanically directing and transforming motions and energies of any kind.

A mechanism may be designed primarily for one or two purposes: 1) to transmit power greatly in excess of that required to overcome the frictional and dynamic requirements of the mechanism itself, or 2) to produce a desired movement of its parts. An example of the first is the slider crank mechanism in a reciprocating internal combustion engine. An example of the second is the mechanism, consisting of a link, gear sector, and pinion, that converts the movement of a pressure sensitive tube in a pressure gage to rotation of a pointer (стрелка) before the dial of the gage.

A machine is an assemblage of one or more mechanisms whose primary purpose is to transform, transmit, and control energy, that is, to do work. Another definition of a machine would be a combination of bodies so arranged as to constrain the forces of nature to produce prescribed effects in response to prescribed inputs.

Before constructing a machine to fulfil the need, the engineer must thoroughly understand the application, and mentally modify and old machine or devise a new machine as required. He estimates a certain cost for the machine and a probable time for its construction. He envisions the materials required the equipment necessary for its manufacture and testing, and the final operation in meeting the original need. The engineer converts his thoughts into drawings and materials and follows through to its fabrication.
Questions to be answered (in writing):

1. What is a mechanism?

2. What are the purposes for designing a mechanism?

3. What is a machine?

4. What should an engineer take into consideration before constructing a machine?
Metallurgy
Metallurgy is the technology and science of metallic materials. Metallurgy as a branch of engineering is concerned with the production of metals and alloys, and their performance in service. Metallurgy has played an important role in the history of civilization. Metals were first produced more than 6000 years ago. Because only a few metals, principally gold, silver, copper, and meteoric iron, occur in the uncombined state in nature, and then only in small quantities, primitive metallurgists had to discover ways of extracting metals from their ores. Quite large-scale production of some metal was carried out in the Middle Ages in central and Northern Europe. Basic metallurgical skills were also developed in other parts of the world.

The scale of metalworking developed with the growth of industrial organizations. Today’s metallurgical plants supply metals and alloys to the manufacturing and construction industries in many forms, such as beams, plates, sheets, bars, wire, and castings. Rapidly developing technologies such as communications, nuclear power, and space exploration demand new techniques of metal production and processing.

The field of metallurgy may be divided into process metallurgy (production metallurgy, extractive metallurgy) and physical metallurgy. According to another system of classification, metallurgy comprises chemical metallurgy, mechanical metallurgy (metal processing and mechanical behavior in service), and physical metallurgy.

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Metallurgy occupies a position of the juncture of physics, chemistry, mechanical and chemical engineering. It also borders electrical, civil, aeronautical, and nuclear engineering.
Questions to be answered (in writing):

1. What is metallurgy?

2. What are the subdivisions of the metallurgy field?

3. What other fields and subjects does metallurgy border?
Mining
A unique feature of mining is that mineral deposits undergoing extraction are not renewable (невосполнимы) as are other natural resources. This depletability of mineral deposits not only requires that mining companies must periodically find new deposits and constantly improve their technology, but calls for conservational, industrial and political policies to serve the public interests. Depletion means that the supplies of any particular mineral must be extracted from ever-lower-grade sources. Consciousness of depletion causes many countries to be possessive about their mineral resources and jealous of their exploration by foreigners. Some would reduce the scale of domestic production and increase imports in order to extend the lives of domestic deposits.

Mining is divided into three basic methods: opencast, underground, and fluid mining. Opencast, or surface, mining is done either from pits or gouged out slopes or by strip mining, which involves extraction from a series of successive parallel trenches. Dredging is a type of strip mining, with digging done from barges. Hydraulic mining uses jets of water to excavate material.

Underground mining involves extraction from beneath the surface, from depths as great as 10,000 ft., by any of several methods.

Fluid mining is extraction from natural brines, lakes, oceans, or underground waters. Most fluid mining is done by wells. A recent type of well mining is to wash insoluble material loose by underground jets and pump the slurry to the surface.

The activities of the mining industry begin with exploration, which has become a complicated, expensive, and highly technical task. After suitable deposits have been found, development of mining begins.
Questions to be answered (in writing):

1. What does depletion of mineral deposits mean?

2. What does the mining industry begin with?

3. What are basic methods of mining?

4. What is dredging? Hydraulic mining?


Computer
Computer is a device that receives, processes, and presents information. The two basic types of computers are analog and digital.

The most prevalent computer is the simple mechanical analog computer, in which gears, levers, ratchets, and pawls perform mathematical operations. The two most common examples of the simple mechanical analog are the speedometer, and the watt-hour meter, used to measure accumulated electrical usage.

A digital computer uses symbolic representations of its variables. The arithmetic unit is constructed to follow the rules of one number systems. The digital computer uses individual discrete states to represent the digits of the number system chosen. The most prevalent special-purpose mechanical digital computer is the supermarket cash register.

By using electronics, large general-purpose digital computers have been constructed. Frequently two or more computers are interconnected to form a computing system. They receive input in the form of preperforated punched cards, electrical signals from digital transolucers, or directly from input keyboards. They process these data in accordance with the rules of procedure and present the output as visual symbols on the printed page, characters on the face of a cathode-ray tube, signals on a communication line, or as input to a digital action device.

Typically, a general-purpose electronic digital computer operates on numbers using both decimal and binary number systems, and on symbolic data expressed in an alphabet.

Since 1950 the computer industry has grown into a multibillion dollar business employing hundreds of thousands of people to build or maintain computers and to program or operate them to perform commercial data-processing tasks or computations related to science or engineering.
Questions to be answered (in writing):

1. What is computer?

2. What is the difference between digital and analog computer?

3. How does an electronic digital computer operate?

4. When did the computer industry grow into a great business?

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