Файл: Учебное пособие 2 по английскому языку Для студентов лечебного и педиатрического факультета (2 семестр) 2020 год.doc

Reflexes allow the body to respond to stimuli very quickly by sending responses to effectors before the nerve signals reach the conscious parts of the brain. This explains why people will often pull their hands away from a hot object before they realize they are in pain. Motor responses that involve the striated muscles of the skeletal system are called and motor responses that involve the smooth muscle of organs, glands, and the vascular system are called autonomic reflexes. Ivan Pavlov, for example, demonstrated that autonomic system responses, such as salivation, could be controlled through the process of conditional association. Although the simplest reflexes may be mediated by circuits lying entirely within the spinal cord, more complex responses rely on signal processing in the brain.

While a reflex unit as simple as the reflex arc is instructive, it is important to note that a reflex this simple cannot occur in isolation given the integrative nature of the human nervous system. The reflex arc, as defined by Sir Charles Sherringtonin the early 1900s, provides the simplest physiological explanation of how reflexive activity in the body works. The simplest type of neural circuit is a reflex arc, which begins with a sensory input and ends with a motor output, passing through a sequence of neurons connected in series. Although for the simplest reflexes there are short neural paths from sensory neuron to motor neuron, there are also other nearby neurons that participate in the circuit and modulate the response.
XV. Fill in the chart:




Listening

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XVI.Watch the video ‘Human Body Nervous System’ and answer the questions:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kr7dGPOwzsA

How does a neuron carry messages?

What are the parts of the nervous system?

What are the divisions of the brain?

What lobes is each hemisphere divided into?

What is the sensation?

What is the perception?

What kinds of light receptor cells are located in the eye?

How is the visual information processed in the brain?

What is the sound?

What is the structure of the ear?

How is the sound processed in the brain?

What are taste and smell?

How is the smell processed in the brain?

What is a sleep?

LESSON 18
Grammar: Perfect Active, Revision Functions of ‘that’, Paired Conjunctions
Microbiology

I. Answer the questions

1. Is microbiology a separate science or a branch of some other sciences?

2. What does it study?

3. Can you name some branches of microbiology?

Word building

Prefix, root	Meaning	Example
micro-	small	microorganism
macro-	big	macroparasite
bio-	life	biotechnology
multi-	many	multicellular
uni-	one	unibranchiate
a- (an-)	lack of	asepsis
patho-	relating to desease	pathology
-logy	theory, science	bacteriology

II. Read and translate the words of Latin-Greek origin.

microorganism [,maIkrq`LgqnIzm], microbe [`maIkrqub], virus [`vaIrqs], fungi [`fANgaI, -gJ], penicillin [,penI`sIlIn], vaccine [`vxksJn], aerobe [`F:rqVb], anaerobe [`xnqrqVb], malaria [mq`leqrIq], giardiasis [,GIR`dAIqsIs], tuberculosis [tjH,bE:kjq`lqusIs], capsule [`kxpsjHl], spore [`spL], coccus [`kOkqs] (pl. cocci [`kOksaI]), bacillus [bq`sIlqs] (pl. bacilli [bq`sIlaI])

Active vocabulary

to affect [q`fekt]- влиять, воздействовать, поражать

to spoil [spOIl]– портить, повреждать

host response [,hqust rI`spOns] - реакция хозяина (на инфекцию)

agent [`eIGqnt]– агент, фактор, возбудитель

applied science [q`plaId ,saIqns] – прикладная наука

vaccine [`vxksJn] - вакцина

smallpox [`smOlpOks] - оспа

stomach ulcer [`stAmqk ,Alsq] – язва желудка

cancer [`kxnsq] - рак

pathogen [`pxTqGen] – патогенный микроорганизм, возбудитель

parasite [`pxrqsaIt] - паразит, паразитирующий организм

mold [mquld] - плесень

yeast [jJst]- дрожжи

virulent [`vIrulqnt] – вирулентный, заразный

disorder [dI`sLdq]– нарушение, болезнь
Useful vocabulary

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African sleep sickness [`xfrIkqn]– африканский трипаносомоз

virulence [`vIrulqns] – вирулентность, болезнетворность

rod-shaped [`rOd,SeIpt] - палочковидный, палочкообразный

capsule [`kxpsjHl] – капсула, оболочка

obligate parasite [`OblIgeIt ,pxresaIt]– облигатный (истинный) паразит

host cell [`hqust] – клетка-хозяин (клетка, несущая вирус)

virion [`vIrIOn] – вироспора, вирион, вирусная частица

challenge [`CxlInG] – вызов, стимул

III. Read and translate the following word combinations paying attention to the word formation:

to classify – classified – classification, microbiology –microbiologists – microbiological, vaccinate - vaccine – vaccination, to discover – discovered - discovery, cell – cellular - multicellular –- intracellular, to bind - membrane-bound, pathology - pathogen – pathogenic, parasite - parasitic, to infect - infection – infectious, microscope - microscopic –microscopy, synthesize - synthesizing - photosynthesis, virus – viral – virology – virologist, virulent – virulence

IV. Read and translate the following word combinations

vitally important to all processes on Earth, ways of both exploiting and controlling the activities, the link between papilloma virus and cervical cancer, to infect one billion people worldwide, to grow in soil, to absorb dissolved nutrients from the environment, to appear in pairs, reaction to the Gram stain, very simple microorganisms or very complex molecules, to generate energy or to synthesize proteins, a central core of nucleic acid, surrounded by a protein coat, the light microscope, the clinical effects, identified by the hosts, the specific properties of the pathogen, to contribute to the infectious capacity
Grammar
V. Read and translate the sentences with the predicate in Perfect

1. Koch developed a series of criteria that have become known as the Koch's postulates. 2. The recent research has suggested that microorganisms could be useful in the treatment of cancer. 3. Many microbiologists who worked in America at this time had studied either under Koch or at the Pasteur Institute in Paris. 4. They will have published their finding on the microorganisms research by the end of this year. 5. Since that time there has been continuous research on the microbiology of public water supplies. 6. This intensive probing into the functions of microbes has resulted in numerous and often unexpected dividends. 7. The evolutionary relationships between various members of these three groups have become uncertain, as comparisons between the DNA sequences of various microbes have revealed many puzzling similarities. 8. The scientific advances that have made genetic engineering a reality have broad implications for the future. 9. They will have already got all the findings by the moment you get all the necessary equipment. 10. Fleming had stopped studying penicillin by 1930 but it was Howard Florey, Ernst Chain and their colleagues at the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at Oxford University who turned penicillin from a laboratory curiosity into a life-saving drug.
VI. Put verb to have in necessary form (have, has, had, will have):

1. The zone immediately around the mold was clear, as if the mold (have) secreted something that inhibited bacterial growth. 2. Nowadays vaccinations and antibiotics, plus even more importantly clean water, (have) lowered our concern over infectious organisms. 3. Immunizations (have) already decreased the risk of some frightening diseases. 4. There are many different ways in which scientists (have) classified the millions of microbes in our environment. 5. Recent improvements in technology (have) provided new and amazing insights into the dynamic structure of this single cell organism. 6. We believe that scientists (have) used their knowledge of microbes to get biotechnologically important enzymes by 2025. 7. But it was not until 1854, when it was proved that an epidemic of cholera (have) had its origin in polluted water.
VII. Translate from Russian into English:

1. В последнее время исследования

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, проводимые области вирусологии, существенно расширили понимание природы вирусов. 2. Исследование бактериофагов в течении последних пяти лет выявило не только разнообразие их форм, но так же масштаб их влияния на экологию нашей планеты в целом. 3. P. aeruginosa может вызывать хронические оппортунистические инфекции, которые уже стали чрезвычайно распространены у пациентов с ослабленным иммунитетом и среди стареющего населения развитых стран. 4. С середины 20-ого века начался весьма продуктивный период в микробиологии, в течение которого были выявлены возбудители многих заболеваний и разработаны методы с их распространением.
VIII. Translate the sentences into Russian paying your attention to ‘that’:

1. Ascariasis is that to infect one billion people worldwide. 2. Of the fungi classified as microorganisms, those that are multicellular and produce filamentous, microscopic structures are frequently called molds. 3. Microorganisms were discovered over three hundred years ago and it is thought that many new microbes have yet to be discovered. 4. Pathogenic fungi are fungi that cause disease in humans or other organisms. 5. Species of Staphylococcus are important pathogens that cause a variety of diseases in humans and animals.6. Koch is best known for his contributions to the germ theory of disease, proving that specific diseases were caused by specific pathogenic micro-organisms.7. It was in their laboratories that techniques were devised for the microscopic examination of specimens, culturing (growing) microbes in the laboratory, isolating pure cultures from mixed-culture populations, and many other laboratory manipulations. 8. Microorganisms that grow at temperatures below 20 C (68 F) are called psychrophiles; those that grow best at 20–40 C (68–104 F) are called mesophiles.
IX. Read and translate the sentences paying attention to the paired conjunctions:

1. Microbiology is concerned with the structure, function, and classification of microorganisms and ways of both exploiting and controlling their activities. 2. Fungi are organisms that have rigid cell walls and may be either unicellular or multicellular. 3. Microbiology includes the study of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms. 4. In addition to populating both the inner and outer surfaces of the human body, microbes abound in the soil, in the seas, and in the air. 5. Eukaryotic microorganisms reproduce by a variety of processes, both asexual and sexual. 6. Teaching healthcare workers, both students and qualified staff, is an important part of the work.
Reading
X. What facts are true?

Parasites

• 
  Helminths are parasites.
  
• 
  Tuberculosis is caused by TB parasites.
  
• 
  About one billion of people worldwide are infected with ascariasis.
  

Bacteria

• 
  There are healthy bacteria and pathogenic bacteria.
  
• 
  All the bacteria have one common shape.
  

Viruses

• 
  Prion is a virus.
  
• 
  Viruses can’t multiply without host cell.
  
• 
  Virus is a central core of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat.
  

Fungi

• 
  Molds and yeast are fungi.
  
• 
  Fungi do not contain chlorophyll
  

XI. Read the text and check your predictions:

Microorganisms

Microorganisms

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and their activities are vitally important to all processes on Earth. They affect every aspect of our life and play key roles in nutrient cycling, climate change, food spoilage, the cause and control of disease, and biotechnology.

Microbiology(from Greek mīkros "small"; bios "life", and -logia "science") is the study of microscopic organisms, or microbes, such as bacteria, viruses, archaea, algae, fungi and protozoa. Microbiology is concerned with the structure, function, and classification of microorganisms and ways of both exploiting and controlling their activities. It embraces fundamental research on the biochemistry, cell biology, ecology, evolution, and clinical aspects of microorganisms, including the host response to these agents. The branches of microbiology can be classified into pure and applied sciences. Microbiologists study microbes, and some of the most important discoveries such as Jenner and his vaccine against smallpox, Fleming and the discovery of penicillin, Marshall and the identification of the link between Helicobacter pylori infection and stomach ulcers and many others.

There are many different ways in which scientists have classified the millions of microbes in our environment. One of the ways microbes are classified is by whether or not they have cells, and if so, how many: multicellular (having more than one cell), unicellular (having a single cell) and acellular (lacking cells). Another way in which microorganisms are classified has to do with the type of cell. Microorganisms are also classified by terms of the physical conditions required for growth. For example, some are aerobes (require oxygen), some are anaerobes (grow only in the absence of oxygen), and some are facultative (they grow in either condition).

The different types of microbes causing infectious disease (pathogens) mainly studied by the medical microbiology can be divided into:

Parasites include helminths (worms), flukes, protozoa, and more. Examples of parasitic infections include malaria, and African sleep sickness. Ascariasis (roundworms) is that to infect one billion people worldwide.

Fungi are in some ways similar to plants. This category also includes mushrooms and molds. Some may be microscopic in size, while others form much larger structures, such as mushrooms. Fungi do not contain chlorophyll and thus cannot carry out photosynthesis. Fungi do not ingest food but must absorb dissolved nutrients from the environment. Of the fungi classified as microorganisms, those that are multicellular and produce filamentous, microscopic structures are frequently called molds, whereas yeasts are unicellular fungi.

There are two kinds of bacteria: ‘healthy bacteria’ protect us against infections and play a role in digesting our food, and ‘pathogenic bacteria’ (also called virulent), which causes infectious diseases. Examples of infections caused by bacteria include tuberculosis and Strep throat. Bacteria have a variety of shapes, including spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli), and spirals (spirilla).

V iruses come in several shapes, and are widely distributed in nature, infecting animal cells, plant cells, and microorganisms. Virologists have variably classified them as organisms, as they consider them either as very simple microorganisms or very complex molecules. The field of study in which viruses are investigated is called virology. Since most viruses measure less than 150 nm, they are beyond the limit of resolution of the light microscope and are visible only by electron microscopy.

Prions are the simplest infectious agents, even smaller than viruses. Like viruses they are obligate parasites, but they possess no genetic material.

Pathogens are identified by the hosts they infect and the symptoms they cause.

Microbiologists have already carried out a vast research, and continue to carry. In future this research will also help to answer big questions such as 'how diverse is life on Earth?', and 'does life exist elsewhere in the Universe'?

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