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94 Great Britain
nization of the 1960s, the devolved power tied to entering the European Economic Community, and devolved power within the British Isles. Each of these changes, singly and together, contributed to British decline.
There were economic burdens accompanying the devolution of power to colonies and dominions. In the period of disconnection, 1947–70, Britain bore heavy overhead costs. Maintaining sterling as a major currency was a liability, clearly displayed in the continuing balance of payments crises (1945–70). While Winston Churchill made rousing speeches in 1947 at the head of a “United Europe Movement,” there was never a solid British commitment to Europe, as was evident from the constant internal feuding over each step of policy. What would the economic effect of early and full participation have been? Would Britain’s economic performance have been better? No one knows, but it is fair to assume that joining Europe would have allowed Britain to participate in the rapid growth continental countries enjoyed in the 1960s and 1970s.
Devolution within the British Isles has taken many different forms, and it is a continuing story. The earliest episode involved the search for Irish Home Rule (1870–1922). This produced a dominion government that was converted to a republic (1937–49). At the same time, the separate dominion in Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom. In Ulster, civil war and unrest plagued the province (1969–98) as the IRA tried to force British withdrawal. Instead, in 1972 the dominion legislature was closed, and Britain used the army to exert control for over two decades. Much more benign events in Scotland and Wales fostered the slow growth of nationalist parties from the 1880s. They made some slight headway in Parliament after 1945, and by 1969 there was enough concern to create a Royal Commission on the Constitution. This body looked at governance in the different parts of the United Kingdom and acknowledged that there might be grounds for reform. But there was no consensus as to the shape of reform, and the commission produced multiple suggestions. Meanwhile, political leaders had created a secretary of state for Wales (1964), on the lines of the office created for Scotland in 1885. There was growing interest in preserving the native languages, literature, and history of the Scots and the Welsh. In 1979 there were votes to form national assemblies, but both failed, the one in Wales by a wide margin. All the same, interest was revived in the 1980s, partly due to Margaret Thatcher’s policies. As her Conservative party had fewer and fewer votes from these areas, her policies reflected a disdain for them, particularly in the plan for a poll tax, to be implemented first in Scotland in 1989. Consequently, the proposals for a parliament for Scotland and an assembly for Wales were both approved in 1997. Through all of this discussion, there have been suggestions that English regions should receive some devolution, but the trend has been toward greater centralization of English government, and the English regions did not develop the kind of political voice used by the nationalist parties.
How much did the connections and conflicts between England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and the Irish Republic “cost” in terms of economic development? Some of the areas affected include the tariff battles with the Irish Republic from the 1930s, army occupation of Ulster (1969–98), disputes over
Decline and Devolution since 1945 95
regional development (for instance, North Sea oil), and issues of taxation (poll tax) and other policies (for instance, the disputes between central and local government over health and education). All were negative factors in the U.K. balance sheet. Since 1997 improved relations with the Irish Republic helped to achieve a cease-fire in Northern Ireland while a fragile peace process got under way. The new Welsh Assembly and Scottish Parliament (the latter with some taxing powers) may or may not prove to enhance the local (and national) economies. But the struggle, real and rhetorical, has definitely had costs, economic as well as political and psychological.
CONCLUSION
Britain in the 21st century is a mature democracy with a longstanding monarchy and no written constitution. That is, its government has evolved from roots in absolutism and aristocracy, with no experience of revolutionary upheaval since the 17th century. Thus, the story of political reform has had the unlikely outcome of “elected dictatorship.” There are still strong feelings for proportional
A Belfast woman looks out of her door to see two British soldiers in the street (1970).
(Hulton/Archive)
96 Great Britain
representation, a quasi-bill of rights has been approved in the Human Rights Act (1998), and there were moves toward abolition and/or replacement of the House of Lords. What each or all of these may do to the essential nature of British government remains to be seen.
The modern British economy grew from poorly capitalized industry, surpassed all competitors, and built a solid financial empire. In the 21st century Britain’s industry deserted its erstwhile essentials and turned toward a “post-industrial” model, running on the fuel of “invisible exports” from the financial and commercial community. This trend has recently been augmented by information technology, and Britain has reluctantly joined the European community. The economic effects of these changes may well halt the decline of relative growth in Britain.
The hierarchy of British society became part of a welfare state in 1945. The whiff of socialism did not erode the aristocracy, but it may have made it irrelevant. And even Thatcher’s harsh assault on state control in the 1980s did not erase national insurance and the health service. The culture of 21st-century Britain has seen major transformations. For example, the place of the churches in society has been undermined, the established church in particular. Art, literature, music, drama, and dance have been stimulated by the eruption of popular culture via old and new media. There has been a transformation of ideas and institutions beyond that of the traditional constitutional and social forms. Britain has entered the new millennium with less power in the world at large, but with an abiding confidence in the strength and stamina of her society and culture.
HISTORICAL DICTIONARY A–Z
A
Abbot, Charles See COLCHESTER, CHARLES
ABBOT, FIRST BARON.
Abbot, George (1562–1633) archbishop of Canterbury
Born in Guildford, Surrey, the son of a clothworker, Abbot attended Guildford grammar school and Balliol College, OXFORD UNIVERSITY, earning his M.A. in 1585. He studied theology and became a notable preacher. He rose to become a leading figure in the university and the church hierarchy. An advocate of the PURI- TANS, he was made a BISHOP in 1609 and ARCH- BISHOP in 1611. He was employed in efforts to reestablish bishops in SCOTLAND, under the authority of James I (JAMES VI AND I), who had come to the English throne from that country. Abbot was at odds with the government of CHARLES I, and was briefly suspended (1627–28).
See also CHURCH OF SCOTLAND; REFORMATION.
abdication crisis (1936)
Edward, prince of Wales, succeeded his father, GEORGE V, on January 20, 1936, as king EDWARD VIII. He intended to marry Wallis Simpson, a divorced American socialite. The planned wedding encountered strong opposition from the church and from political leaders, and Edward was forced to abdicate in December 1936, taking the title of Duke of Windsor and marrying the woman he loved.
Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, fourth earl of (1784–1860)
prime minister, 1852–55
Lord Aberdeen was educated at Harrow school and St. John’s, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. A Scottish representative peer (1806–14), he served in several diplomatic assignments. He was a supporter of Robert PEEL and was foreign secretary 1828–30 and again 1841–46. After Peel resigned in 1846, Aberdeen became the leader of the Peelite faction of the CONSERVATIVE PARTY. His period of leadership coincided with the CRIMEAN WAR (1854–56), for which his government was charged with serious mismanagement, and he resigned after a vote of censure. He also was the founder of the Athenian Society and president of the Society of Antiquaries (1812–46).
Aboukir Bay (1798)
The French fleet anchored off Alexandria after landing Napoleon’s army for the conquest of EGYPT. Admiral Horatio NELSON had pursued the enemy across the Mediterranean and he attacked on August 1, 1798, achieving one of the most decisive victories in English naval history, in what became known as the Battle of the Nile.
act of Parliament
The highest legal authority in the United Kingdom; however, it may be amended or repealed
99
100 Acton, John, first baron Acton
by a later act of PARLIAMENT. Making an act begins with drafting a bill, usually by the ministers of the Crown. Until the 20th century, individual members often introduced legislation, but that became far less common with the rapid growth of government business in the 19th century. The bill is introduced in either the HOUSE OF COMMONS or the HOUSE OF LORDS, and it must pass three readings in each house. During these stages, members may debate and offer amendments. When both houses have passed the final version of the bill, it must receive royal assent, after which it becomes law.
See also BUDGET; CABINET; PARLIAMENT; REFORM ACTS; SELECT COMMITTEE; UNION, ACTS OF.
Acton, John, first baron Acton
(1834–1902) essayist, historian
A renowned historian, Baron Acton was born in Italy and raised on the continent. His father was English, his mother German and Roman Catholic. His religion prevented his entry into OXFORD
UNIVERSITY or CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. He gained
notoriety with essays supporting liberal Catholic views and opposing papal infallibility in the 1870s. He was a member of the HOUSE OF COM- MONS before assuming his PEERAGE in 1869 and entering the HOUSE OF LORDS. He was made Regius Professor of History at Cambridge in 1895, and he planned the Cambridge Modern History (1899–1912). His lifetime project, “A History of Liberty,” was never completed. He is best remembered for his remark, “Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely.”
Adam, Robert (1728–1792) architect
Adam was the best-known of four architect brothers, sons of William Adam, an important architect in Scotland in the early 18th century. He attended Edinburgh University and then studied architecture in Italy. Adams’s work was in the neoclassical style, taking inspiration from
many Greek and Roman models. He built a number of famous country houses in England, and he was the designer of important public buildings in EDINBURGH, including Charlotte Square and Register House.
Addington, Henry, viscount Sidmouth (1757–1844)
prime minister, 1801–1804
Addington attended Winchester School, Brasenose College, OXFORD UNIVERSITY, and Lincoln’s Inn. Elected to Parliament in 1783, he was made SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE (1789–1801). In 1801 he was selected by GEORGE III to succeed William PITT as PRIME MINISTER. He opposed Catholic emancipation, favored a peace policy and repeal of the INCOME TAX, but when the Peace of Amiens failed, Pitt was returned to office in 1804. Addington was raised to the PEERAGE in 1805, and he served in various posts in the governments of the next 25 years. Home secretary during the radical agitations of 1819 and 1820, he is remembered for the notorious SIX ACTS (1819), the government’s response to the PETER-
LOO MASSACRE (1819).
Addison, Joseph (1672–1719) essayist, politician
Educated at Charterhouse and Queen’s College, OXFORD UNIVERSITY, Addison was a distinguished classical scholar. A member of PARLIAMENT (1708) and a WHIG supporter, he wrote essays for The Tatler, published by Richard STEELE (1709–11), and together they published The Spectator (1711–12). These popular essays were reprinted many times until the 19th century. Upon the accession of GEORGE I, he returned to office with the Whigs.
Aden
Port city at the entrance to the Red Sea (now part of Yemen). Controlled by the Turkish Empire, it became a British base and a coaling station in 1839. Administered from INDIA, it was an impor-
Agincourt, Battle of 101
tant outpost connecting GREAT BRITAIN and its eastern colonies. It was made a crown COLONY in 1937. British forces were withdrawn in 1967, after a period of civil turmoil.
admiralty
The term is used for the court of law, established in the 14th century and dealing with maritime acts and merchant disputes on the basis of the civil (Roman) LAW. This aroused the hostility of the common lawyers, and maritime jurisdiction was gradually taken over by the COMMON LAW courts. While this legal shift was underway, English officers of state in the 17th century fashioned an Admiralty Board, a government department that had control over the naval forces of the Crown. The board was made up of “lords of the admiralty,” the First Lord being a member of the CABINET. The admiralty board was paralleled by a NAVY board, responsible for the administration and maintenance of the fleet. The two boards were merged in 1832.
See also COURTS OF LAW; MERCANTILISM.
Afghan Wars
When Russian forces appeared to threaten the British colony in INDIA in the 19th century, the area of Afghanistan became a buffer zone. The first major violence was a British invasion in 1838, when nearly 20,000 British troops died. A second war in 1878 was caused by diplomatic rivalry and it produced a pro-British ruler. In 1919 the Afghan leaders asserted independence, and although British forces again imposed control, Afghanistan’s sovereignty was recognized in 1921.
Africa
GREAT BRITAIN’s relations with Africa fell into four distinct stages. The earliest involved contact with various coastal communities through the trading companies created during the reign of Queen ELIZABETH I in the 16th century. This contact
expanded when British merchants joined in the SLAVE TRADE (Royal Africa Company, 1676). The second stage of territorial expansion began in the early 19th century when Britain seized the Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope; elsewhere, explorers and missionaries began to search the interior of the continent. The most aggressive phase began in the last quarter of the 19th century, when other European states were also busy carving out imperial holdings. Britain’s main steps were to take control of EGYPT (1882), THE SUDAN (1898), and east-central Africa; and, after the BOER WAR (1899–1902), forming the Union of SOUTH AFRICA (1910) and the diamondand golddriven colony of Southern RHODESIA (1923). By the middle of the 20th century, Britain entered the final stage, the reluctant liberation of its African colonies (their former names are given in brackets) after WORLD WAR II, including Egypt (1952); Sudan (1956); [Gold Coast] GHANA (1957); NIGERIA (1960); SOMALIA (1960); TAN- GANYIKA (1961); South Africa (1961); UGANDA (1962); KENYA (1963); [ZANZIBAR and TAN-
GANYIKA] TANZANIA (1963); [NYASALAND] MALAWI
(1964); [Northern Rhodesia] ZAMBIA (1964); Southern Rhodesia (1965); THE GAMBIA (1965);
[BECHUANALAND] BOTSWANA (1966); [BASUTO- LAND] LESOTHO (1966); and SWAZILAND (1968).
See also ANTISLAVERY MOVEMENT; FASHODA;
IMPERIALISM; ORANGE FREE STATE; RHODES, CECIL;
ZULU.
Agincourt, Battle of (1415)
HENRY V led an army of 10,000 men to France in August 1415. He laid siege to the town of Harfleur, but it held out for more than a month. The French army (numbering nearly 20,000) tried to prevent the English from moving toward Calais and forced a battle on October 25. By this time, the English army was much reduced, but it still included about 5,000 archers. The French cavalry charged, but the two flanks of the English were manned by the archers, whose deadly fire killed large numbers of French knights. The victory opened the way for the
102 agricultural revolution
conquest of Normandy and led to Henry’s victory over France. This was the high point of the
HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR for England.
agricultural revolution
A conventional expression for the rapid technological changes that brought increased productivity to English agriculture in the 18th and 19th centuries. The term was coined as a companion to
the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, though recent
research suggests that the duration and direction of agricultural changes do not fit well with the metaphor of revolution. The most important fact was the undeniable increase in food production, which helped to support a rapid increase in British population after 1760. The major elements of change were: new root crops, which allowed soil regeneration without LAND lying fallow;
improved livestock breeding; improved transport (especially canals and turnpikes); advances in land drainage; and ENCLOSURE of common land, bringing more land into cultivation.
See also COKE, THOMAS, EARL OF LEICESTER;
YOUNG, ARTHUR.
air raids
The earliest attacks on Britain by air came with
the ZEPPELIN raids on LONDON in WORLD WAR I. The
fear of air power and its ability to destroy major cities was a pronounced theme between the two world wars. Air-raid precautions for civilians were initiated in the 1930s, including distribution of gas masks, construction of shelters, and organization of medical personnel and facilities for emergency use. On the military side, the construction of fighter aircraft and the invention of
Sir Winston Churchill tours the blitz-damaged streets in the city of London. (Hulton/Archive)
Albert, Prince 103
RADAR detection began to offset the prevailing view that “the bomber will always get through.” The sustained German raids of 1940–44, including the assault on ROYAL AIR FORCE facilities and the bombing of cities (especially the London BLITZ between August 1940 and March 1941), tested these preparations. In the later stages of the war, German V-1 and V-2 rockets added a more frightening dimension to air warfare, although casualties were much lower. The British and American forces, for their part, launched a heavy bombing campaign against Germany that took many civilian lives, destroyed German industrial capacity, and set off a continuing debate over its contribution to the final victory.
See also DOWDING, HUGH; HARRIS, ARTHUR TRAVERS.
Aitken, Max See BEAVERBROOK, MAX AITKEN,
LORD.
Alamein, Battle of El (1942)
The first major British victory over German ground forces in WORLD WAR II. General Bernard MONTGOMERY had about twice the number of troops plus air superiority, while his German adversary General Rommel was faced with overstretched supply lines and forced to retreat 1,500 miles into Tunisia. Together with the Soviet victory at Stalingrad and the allied landings in North Africa, there now was a turn in the tide of war.
Alanbrooke, Alan Francis Brooke, first viscount
(1883–1963)
chief of the Imperial General Staff
Son of an Irish baronet, Alanbrooke studied in France and at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. He served as an artillery officer in Ireland, in India, and on the western front in WORLD WAR I. Commander of the air defense forces before WORLD WAR II, he took the high command of home forces in 1940, and became chief of the Imperial General Staff in 1941. His
strategic vision and careful planning were a valuable antidote to the ambitious ideas of his civilian superior, Winston CHURCHILL.
Albany, dukes of
The Stewart family in SCOTLAND, unlike its English royal cousins, usually had a large supply of male descendants, though they were not always of full age when they inherited the throne. This assured rivals, regents, and presumptive heirs in abundance. Robert Stewart (1339–1420) was the uncrowned ruler of Scotland, 1388–1420 (during the reigns of Robert II, Robert III, and JAMES I), during which time he took the title Duke of Albany in 1398. The second duke, Murdac Stewart, succeeded his father, but was executed by King JAMES II in 1425. The dukedom was created again for that king’s younger son, Alexander Stewart (1458). He in turn was forced to flee to France, but his son, John Stewart, took the title and acted as guardian for the infant JAMES V (1515–24).
Albemarle, George Monck, first duke of
See MONCK, GEORGE, FIRST DUKE OF ALBEMARLE
Albert, Prince (1819–1861) prince consort of Queen Victoria
Prince of the German state of Saxe-Coburg Gotha, Albert was shy and studious. Introduced to Princess VICTORIA in 1836, they were engaged in 1839 and married in 1840. Initially he was as unattracted to his new home as he was unpopular with its inhabitants. PARLIAMENT reduced his allowance, and he was not granted the title of Prince until 1857. Unable to assert himself in politics to the degree he felt he was entitled, Albert took on a series of nongovernmental public functions: chairman of the Fine Arts Royal Commission; chancellor of CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY; and most notably, the organizer, in 1851, of the GREAT EXHIBITION of the Industrial Works of all Nations. He died of typhoid fever at the age of 42, and Queen Victoria went into prolonged mourning.