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the 12th century, reduced to two in the 1830s. SCOTLAND had no archbishop until the end of the 15th century, when four were created. They lost their authority in the reformation of 1560, but it was intermittently restored until 1690, when a PRESBYTERIAN order was established. After the REFORMATION there were no Roman Catholic archbishops recognized by secular authority in the British Isles until the creation of the archbishop of Westminster in 1850.

archdeacon

The chief lieutenant of a BISHOP in his diocese, overseeing many of the duties of administration. Historically the archdeacon presided in the lowest and busiest of the church courts.

Argyle (Argyll), earls of See CAMPBELL

FAMILY.

Arkwright, Sir Richard (1732–1792) inventor, manufacturer

The son of a laborer in Preston, Arkwright was apprenticed to a barber and established his own business in Bolton, but he gave that up for a career as an inventor. Together with John KAY he invented the water frame, a spinning machine using rollers that was powered by horses or by water (patented 1769). His work encountered opposition from workers and from rival manufacturers. The former destroyed one of his mills, and the latter brought legal action to destroy his patent. He continued his work and is recognized as a pioneer in factory organization and in the foundation of the Lancashire cotton industry.

Armada, Spanish

In 1588 Philip II of Spain launched an unprecedented invasion of ENGLAND. His armada católica was partly aimed at the overthrow of the heretic

queen ELIZABETH I; at the same time it would end the English threat to Spanish treasure fleets from America and reinforce Spanish influence in the Netherlands. Nearly 140 ships and 24,000 men of the Spanish fleet were supposed to rendezvous with an army of similar size in the Netherlands, move across the channel, and invade southern England. The English countered with a fleet of about 200, only 34 being warships of the royal NAVY. They could not prevent the progress of the enemy up the English channel and only annoyed them with their more effective long-range gunnery. When the Spanish fleet anchored at Calais, prior to the expected rendezvous, the English sent a number of fireships into their formation at night. The Spanish were forced to disperse, and the following day a long and costly sea battle left the armada in disarray. The remaining Spanish vessels sailed to the north and around the shores of the British Isles, losing many ships on the stormy journey down the coast of IRELAND. This extraordinary campaign failed because of weather and inadequate logistics, but that did not prevent the English (and others) from seeing providential signs and using the outcome to boost national spirit.

Arminian

Early in the reign of ELIZABETH I the English church showed considerable Calvinist influence, especially in the doctrine of predestination, that one was saved by God’s will, regardless of human choice. An influential Dutch theologian, Jacobus Arminius, argued against this doctrine, and similar views became increasingly prominent in ENGLAND by the end of the 16th century. Though there was no formal connection, those members of the CHURCH OF ENGLAND who held these beliefs were labeled “arminians.” By the accession of CHARLES I (1625), the so-called Arminian influence was very powerful in the church’s hierarchy. In fact, the beliefs of Archbishop William LAUD and others were part of an older, authoritarian, Catholic tradition, which

was never extinguished and became one of the major issues in the rebellion of the 1640s.

armistice

As German forces fell back toward the frontier with France in October 1918, the German general Ludendorff advised Kaiser Wilhelm to sue for peace. The Kaiser abdicated and sought asylum in Holland, while a provisional German government negotiated the terms of armistice, formally ending WORLD WAR I at the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month (November 1918).

army

From the earliest times there were twin sources of military manpower in ENGLAND: a militia based on a general obligation of service to the Crown (the Assize of Arms of 1181 is perhaps the earliest formal statement); plus an elite warrior group, an armed aristocracy with ancient roots. The modern royal army traces its origins to the time of the restoration of CHARLES II in 1660, when the king had a small permanent body of troops, containing officers and units and doctrines left over from the NEW MODEL ARMY of the later 1640s, which had defeated the king’s father.

In the 18th century the British army was strictly limited in resources, in part because of civilian fear of a powerful standing army— another legacy of the CIVIL WAR. Thus the military record, and the military role in the society, were quite different from other European states. Typically the British fought wars with a powerful NAVY and a small army augmented by mercenaries from allied states who received British subsidies. This applied in varied ways to European and colonial wars. In fact, the largest British army in the 19th century was the one taken over from

the EAST INDIA COMPANY in 1858.

Warfare in the 20th century transformed this pattern, as Britain resorted to conscripts in 1916 and 1939. The mass armed forces and the collateral mobilization of society and the economy were general in the two world wars, as was the

urge to demobilize as rapidly as possible. But in both cases, international threats appeared to make a return to the old policy too risky. In the 1940s compulsory NATIONAL SERVICE was kept as a general source of military manpower and only dropped in 1960.

Arnold, Matthew (1822–1888) poet, critic

Son of Thomas ARNOLD, the famous headmaster at Rugby School, Matthew Arnold was educated at Winchester and at OXFORD UNIVERSITY. Although a professor of poetry there (1857–67), he was better known as a social critic. An inspector of schools, he advocated secondary education reform, some of his inspiration coming from continental tours of schools. A religious liberal, he became a prominent critic of Victorian society in general. His major work was Culture and Anarchy (1869), in which he saw English society as materialistic and overly proud of its assumed superiority.

Arnold, Thomas (1795–1842) schoolmaster

Educated at Winchester and OXFORD UNIVERSITY, Arnold was vicar of a parish in Middlesex before becoming headmaster at Rugby School in 1828. He was known for his special enthusiasm and sense of duty, both in sermons and in sports, which became a hallmark of Victorian schooling. His school was the model for the Tom Hughes novel Tom Brown’s Schooldays (1857). He was the father of poet Matthew ARNOLD.

Ascham, Roger (1515–1568) scholar, educator

Educated at CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY, Ascham became one of the leading authorities on classical languages. He was tutor to princess ELIZABETH I and EDWARD VI. He served in embassies in Germany and in Venice and was Latin secretary under Queen MARY I. His book The Schoolmaster, or

Plain and Perfect Way of Teaching Children the Latin Tongue (1570) was widely used for generations.

Ashanti

A West African native empire; in the later 18th century it expanded and came into contact with British coastal communities. Conflict broke out in 1824 with an Ashanti victory. After a settlement, there was strife again in 1863. British forces sent to Africa destroyed the Ashanti capital and claimed the territory as a Crown COLONY. Further resistance by the Ashanti during the competition for empire led to their total defeat by the British in 1901.

Aske, Robert (unknown–1537) rebel leader

A Yorkshire gentleman and a LONDON lawyer (a fellow of Gray’s Inn), Aske was a leader in the PIL- GRIMAGE OF GRACE, the protest ignited by the DIS- SOLUTION of the monasteries in 1536. A first outbreak in Lincolnshire was followed by another in Yorkshire. Aske negotiated with Thomas HOWARD, duke of Norfolk, and King HENRY VIII promised pardons and an audience in which he would address the grievances of the protesters. When another disturbance began in 1537, Aske was implicated, arrested on charges of treason, and executed at York.

Asquith, Herbert Henry, first earl of Oxford and Asquith (1852–1928)

prime minister, 1908–16

An orphan from a modest background, Asquith was educated at OXFORD UNIVERSITY, became a barrister, and in 1886 entered PARLIAMENT. A rising member of the LIBERAL PARTY, he fell out with the leadership over their opposition to the BOER WAR, but he regained respect by campaigning against tariff reform in 1903, and he became the heir apparent in 1905 when he was

appointed CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER. He

became PRIME MINISTER in 1908 and presided

over important domestic reforms: old-age pensions, increased taxation on the wealthy, reform of the HOUSE OF LORDS, and a pioneer program of NATIONAL INSURANCE. Asquith’s government also resisted the efforts of the WOMEN’S MOVE- MENT; had a troubled relationship with the labor movement and could not contain the emerging LABOUR PARTY; and found its parliamentary majority dependent on support of the Irish Nationalists, prompting the introduction of the third IRISH HOME RULE bill in 1912.

In foreign affairs, Asquith’s time in office coincided with an escalating arms race with Germany, intensified nationalist rivalry in the Balkans, and the awkward ending of GREAT BRITAIN’s diplomatic isolation. In the crisis of 1914, Britain was unsure of her role, but when WORLD WAR I began, and German troops marched into neutral Belgium, Asquith was able to rally his government to the side of France and Russia with only two CABINET members resigning. He led the British government for the first half of the war, but in late 1916, with mounting dissatisfaction over both the war and domestic politics, he was replaced as prime minister by his former colleague David LLOYD GEORGE, who had allied with the CONSERVATIVE PARTY to oust him. This bit of skulduggery so alienated Asquith that he led an angry section of the LIBERAL PARTY in opposition to the new government. He continued this opposition after the war, perhaps fatally dividing the party and making way for Labour to replace it as the second major party by 1924.

assize

Originally the term applied to any sitting of a court and to the pronouncements of some of those courts. From the 13th century it was connected to the regular circuits of royal judges through the English counties, where civil and criminal cases were heard. Criminal cases were presented by a GRAND JURY, and the matter was tried before a petty JURY. Some cases were transferred to judges sitting in Westminster while others were decided locally. The result was a

fairly efficient system of centralized but local justice. It was finally abolished in 1971.

See also COURTS OF LAW; NISI PRIUS.

association movement

In the 18th century, landowners and gentlemen concerned over perceived inefficiencies and corruption in elections and government formed county associations and petitioned PARLIAMENT for fiscal and electoral reform. Christopher WYVILL and the Yorkshire Association made the first such appeal in 1780, and a reform convention met in 1781. Some of the momentum for the movement came from discontent over the loss of the AMERICAN COLONIES, but the larger impulse for reform continued and assumed different forms in the 19th century, even though many of the same ideas remained strong.

See also ECONOMICAL REFORM; REFORM ACTS.

Astor, Nancy, Lady (1879–1964) politician

Lady Astor was the American wife of Waldorf Astor, a Conservative MP who succeeded to a PEERAGE in 1919. She ran in the subsequent byelection for his constituency and became the first woman to sit in PARLIAMENT (1919–45). An outspoken campaigner for women’s causes and for temperance, she was also a supporter of APPEASE- MENT, though not a supporter of Hitler’s Germany. The family estate at CLIVEDEN became a meeting place and symbol of the appeasers.

Atlantic, Battle of the (1940–1943)

As WORLD WAR II began, German submarines made British shipping highly vulnerable; their U- boats developed a “wolf pack” technique, where numbers of subs attacked convoys. Decoding of German orders helped to disrupt the attacks, but German successes mounted to a critical level in 1942. In 1943 massive new ship construction from America, plus improved tactics and weapons (longer-range aircraft, better detection,

and more effective depth charges) enabled the allied forces to turn the tide in the Atlantic.

Atlantic Charter (1941)

The incipient alliance between GREAT BRITAIN and the United States took a step forward when President Franklin Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston CHURCHILL held an unannounced meeting on warships off Newfoundland in August 1941. Since the United States was not yet at war, the idea of a top-level meeting with the leader of a belligerent state was a sensitive issue in America, where sentiment for remaining neutral was still strong. Although the senior military staff on both sides engaged in talks, the public product of the meeting was a “charter” of common political principles: opposition to aggression, freedom for people to organize their own governments, and freedom of expression.

atom bomb

During WORLD WAR II nuclear fission was applied to the manufacture of bombs of enormous power. Although German scientists had made some progress in this area, an American and British team was successful in an intense research effort, code-named the Manhattan Project. The atom bombs produced were dropped in two raids on Japan in August 1945, forcing that country to surrender. After the war, both countries developed peacetime uses for NUCLEAR ENERGY, and both were caught up in spy fervor, as the Soviet Union tried to obtain scientific information to aid its own program of weapon development. In October 1952

successfully detonated its first atom bomb.

See also CAMPAIGN FOR NUCLEAR DISARMA-

MENT.

attainder

Form of punishment by an ACT OF PARLIAMENT, in which the party convicted suffers loss of life, with property forfeited to the Crown, and heirs

disinherited. Used extensively in the late 15th century, it was less common in the 17th century. JACOBITES were sometimes punished in this way, and attainder was last used was in the case of Lord Edward FITZGERALD in 1798. The procedure was abolished in 1870.

Atterbury, Francis (1663–1732)

Tory scholar, bishop

Educated at Westminster and at Christ Church, OXFORD UNIVERSITY, Atterbury was a leading member of the university and opposed the efforts of JAMES VII AND II to introduce Catholic fellows. But by the time he was bishop of Rochester (1713) he was driven to extreme JACOBITE positions by the tyranny of one-party WHIG rule. His enemies exposed his machinations in 1723, and for the so-called Atterbury plot he was exiled by PARLIAMENT’s enactment of a bill of pains and penalties.

Attlee, Clement Richard Attlee, first earl (1883–1967)

prime minister, 1945–1951

Educated at OXFORD UNIVERSITY, Attlee prepared for the law but gave that up to work for the poor. After serving with distinction in WORLD WAR I, he became Labour mayor of Stepney in 1919, and entered PARLIAMENT in 1922. He became leader of the LABOUR PARTY in 1935, and when Winston CHURCHILL took office as PRIME MINISTER in 1940, Attlee joined his coalition cabinet. In 1942 he became deputy prime minister in charge of domestic affairs. At the end of WORLD WAR II, Attlee led his party in the election campaign against the war hero Churchill and won an overwhelming victory. Labour promised the electorate social reforms, which had tremendous appeal after the misery of the DEPRESSION and the war. The new government brought about major changes including NATIONAL INSUR-

ANCE, the NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE and NATION-

ALIZATION of large sectors of the economy. Attlee led his party to a narrow victory in 1950, fol-

lowed by a loss to Churchill in 1951. He resigned as party leader in 1955.

attorney

The representative of parties in lawsuits. In the medieval Court of COMMON PLEAS the staff of attorneys was barred from the INNS OF COURT, whose members became BARRISTERs. The office of attorney was ended in the reform of the courts in 1873. The title of Attorney General is given to the senior law officer of the Crown, a post with legal and political significance, assisted by the Solicitor General.

Attwood, Thomas (1783–1856) economist, political reformer

An advocate of currency reform, especially the use of paper money, Attwood founded the Birmingham Political Union in 1830 as a vehicle for political reform. This body helped to spur the first major parliamentary reform in 1832. In the election of that year, Attwood was chosen as MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT for Birmingham. In 1839 he introduced the petition from the Chartists, which was rejected by the HOUSE OF COMMONS.

See also CHARTIST MOVEMENT; REFORM ACTS.

Aubrey, John (1626–1697) biographer, antiquarian

A gentleman interested in antiquities, Aubrey was elected to the ROYAL SOCIETY in 1663. He studied the sites of Stonehenge and Avebury and helped to compile The Antiquities of Oxford in 1674. He also wrote a series of Brief Lives, published in the 19th century and in expanded form in 1949. These became the classic descriptions of many notable 17th-century figures.

Auchinleck, Sir Claude (1884–1981) general

Commander in chief in the Middle East in 1941, Auchinleck engaged the German forces led by

General Rommel and was nearly beaten in 1942. Winston CHURCHILL lacked confidence in his leadership, and though Auchinleck stopped Rommel at El Alamein, in August 1942 Churchill replaced him with generals Harold ALEXANDER and Bernard MONTGOMERY. Auchinleck later served as commander in chief of the army in

INDIA.

Augmentations, Court of

With the DISSOLUTION of the monasteries, their revenues were taken over by this new government department in 1536, channeled into the royal financial system, and merged with the

EXCHEQUER in 1554.

Austen, Jane (1775–1817) novelist

The daughter of a country parson, Austen used portrayals of the lives of the gentry she knew firsthand to examine human nature. She composed and revised her first novel, Sense and Sensibility, in the 1790s, but it was not published until 1811. Other works similarly written and revised appeared over the next seven years:

Pride and Prejudice (1813); Mansfield Park (1814); Emma (1816); and Northanger Abbey and Persuasion (1818), the latter two published posthumously. Her work received a mixed reception, but by the late 19th century she had attained the popularity her writing still enjoys.

Austin, Herbert (1866–1941) automobile manufacturer

Austin attended Rotheram Grammar School and Brampton College and in 1884 went to Australia, where he worked in manufacturing. He returned to England in 1893 and produced a three-wheeled motor car, the “Wolseley,” in 1895. He founded the Austin Motor Company in 1905, and in the first year of production the company produced 120 cars. The company aimed at a large general market, and by 1939 it