Файл: Great Britain_0816044740.pdf

was producing over 75,000 cars at the Longbridge site near Birmingham.

Australia

Occupying the smallest of the world’s seven continents, modern Australia is composed of six federated states (New South Wales, Tasmania, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia, South Australia). Populated for thousands of years by aboriginal peoples, the land was claimed for BRITAIN by Captain James COOK in 1770. The first British settlement was in 1788, when a fleet transporting convicts entered BOTANY BAY. This mode of settlement continued for about 80 years and totalled some 160,000 persons by the time it was abolished in 1867. Meanwhile, ordinary immigration gradually increased. At first the area’s economy was not promising, but in the early 19th century the prospects were improved by the herding of sheep and export of wool. The exploration and development of the continent were propelled by the discovery of gold in 1851, which brought a significant increase in immigration.

The political institutions in the colonies soon developed democratic features. With male suffrage and secret ballot by the 1850s, and paid legislators as early as 1870, the institutions of the frontier society reflected its more open and enterprising economy. By the end of the century the colonies agreed (by referendum) to establish a federation, the Commonwealth of Australia (1901). That government remained a loyal part of the British Commonwealth as one of its new DOMINIONs. Political, diplomatic, and cultural ties with Britain remained strong through the great

wars of the 20th century, but by the end of the century Australia was pursuing more independent policies.

Austrian Succession, War of

(1740–1748)

When Frederick the Great of Prussia invaded Silesia in 1740, he violated the diplomatic guarantee of the Austrian throne occupied by Empress Maria Theresa. BRITAIN and Holland had pledged to support Austria; some in Britain, including King GEORGE II, were more worried about the power of France; and Britain was already fighting Spain in the War of JENKINS’ EAR. With Austrian and Dutch allies, the British fought against France in the Low Countries. They provided financial aid to the Austrians fighting in Italy and in central Europe, but the greatest British victories came against French naval forces. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. Prussia kept Silesia, and Austria retained imperial precedence for the Empress and her husband. Otherwise the eight years of conflict and the deaths of nearly half a million had been to little avail in terms of European politics. In British politics, the years of war saw the fall of Robert WALPOLE and other ministers, and the conflict coincided with the 1745 rebellion of the JACOBITES at home. It confirmed the general British foreign policy of supporting allies with subsidies while relying mainly on British maritime strength.

Avon, first earl of See EDEN, ANTHONY,

FIRST EARL OF AVON.

Babington, Anthony (1561–1586) conspirator

A Derbyshire gentleman from a Catholic family, Babington traveled in Europe and assisted missionaries to ENGLAND. A supporter of MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS, he engaged in a plot to kill Queen ELIZABETH I. He was trapped by Sir Francis WALSINGHAM, Elizabeth’s principal secretary, who used agents to infiltrate the conspirators and intercept correspondence. Babington was executed, and the plot’s exposure convinced Elizabeth to bring Mary to trial.

backbencher

Term applied to a MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT who

sits at the rear of the facing tiers of benches in the HOUSE OF COMMONS, the front rank of which is reserved for the leaders of the government and the opposition. Backbenchers are rank-and- file MPs who are not likely to achieve power themselves and are often critical of their own party leaders.

Bacon, Francis, viscount St. Albans

(1561–1626) lawyer, philosopher

Son of Nicholas Bacon, lawyer and longtime royal servant, Francis Bacon studied at Trinity

College, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY, and subse-

quently at Gray’s Inn. He pursued a political career in addition to his work in the law and his study and writing in philosophy. With the accession of JAMES I, he held a series of official posts: solicitor general in 1607, attorney general in 1613, and lord chancellor in 1618. His career in

Engraving of Francis Bacon,Viscount St.Albans (Library

of Congress)

office was ruined by IMPEACHMENT on bribery charges in 1621. His published works include

Essays (1597), Advancement of Learning (1605) and Novum Organum (1620). Bacon was a pioneer in scientific study in both practical and theoretical terms. The inductive method of careful observation of natural phenomena would remain a fundamental approach in scientific research. Some have speculated that Bacon was the author of William SHAKESPEARE’s plays, a theory that appeared in the 19th century, based on the playwright’s plebian background as well as the philosopher’s acknowledged genius. This

attribution still has its defenders, but most Shakespeare scholars do not share this view.

Baden-Powell of Gilwell, Robert Stephenson Smyth Baden-Powell, first baron (1857–1941)

founder of the Boy Scouts

A soldier since 1876, Baden-Powell specialized in reconnaissance. He developed training methods on duty in India and published Aids to Scouting in 1899. He fought in the BOER WAR and was instrumental in the victory at the siege of Mafeking. A hero to the British public, he went on to found the

BOY SCOUTS in 1908 and the GIRL GUIDES in 1909.

Bagehot, Walter (1826–1877) journalist

Educated at the University of London, Bagehot became the editor of The Economist in 1860. He is particularly noted for his book The English Constitution, published in 1867. Unlike other 19thcentury writers on English institutions, his work analyzed the current operation of government, in its actual as opposed to theoretical powers and procedures.

bail

An arrested person may be released from custody on the condition he or she will appear for trial or further proceeding. This release on bail is granted at the discretion of a magistrate and upon an assurance given by persons known as sureties for the prisoner; or, more often, by a promise to provide monetary or other payment if the defendant does not appear.

bailiff

A medieval term for an official, often the agent for a lord, in a MANOR or BOROUGH. In Scotland a “bailie” was a senior councillor in a BURGH corporation. In modern terms, a bailiff is an agent

of a COUNTY COURT.

balance of power

This expression refers to power relations between the states of Europe, particularly the idea that no one state or group of states should dominate the continent. It was often used by British statesmen to justify policies of assistance or intervention.

Baldwin of Bewdley, Stanley Baldwin, first earl (1867–1947)

prime minister, 1923–1924, 1924–1929, 1935–1937

Educated at CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY, Baldwin worked in the family ironworks. Upon his father’s death, he stood for his seat in PARLIAMENT in 1908. He served with David LLOYD GEORGE in the coalition governments of WORLD WAR I, but Baldwin helped to topple Lloyd George in 1922. He became PRIME MINISTER in 1923, called an election the following year, and lost the

majority, thus allowing the formation of a (minority) LABOUR PARTY government, the first of its kind. He returned to office in 1924 after winning the next election with a majority of over 200 MPs in the HOUSE OF COMMONS. While historians have not considered him a leader of high intellect or powerful will, Baldwin successfully presided over a party with many rivalries and strong personalities.

Balfour, Arthur James, first earl

(1848–1930)

prime minister, 1902–1905

Balfour entered PARLIAMENT in 1874 and served as head of the Local Government Board (1885),

SECRETARY OF STATE for SCOTLAND (1886), and

chief secretary for IRELAND (1887–91). The nickname “Bloody Balfour” came from his policy of suppressing of rural violence in Ireland, but he also applied a policy of social change, through sale of LAND to tenants and support for economic improvements.

Balfour’s uncle, Lord SALISBURY, was PRIME MINISTER for most of the period 1885–1902 and seemed to be grooming his nephew for that position. Balfour was an intellectual and not a great

orator or parliamentarian. When he took office in 1902, the BOER WAR was ending, and there was rising debate over TARIFF reform and over a cluster of social issues (rights of workers, women, and the Irish). At the 1906 election, his CONSER- VATIVE PARTY was resoundingly defeated, and he was forced to resign as party leader in 1911 after an ineffective spell as leader of the opposition. However, he returned to office in 1915 as part of the wartime coalition government, served as foreign secretary (1916–19) and wrote the famous BALFOUR DECLARATION (1917), which outlined the British government’s commitment to support a Jewish homeland in PALESTINE.

Balfour Declaration (1917)

In 1917, with British forces attempting to control the Middle East in the final stages of WORLD WAR I, and with pressure mounting to gain support from as wide a population as possible, the British government authorized the foreign secretary, Arthur BALFOUR, to announce GREAT BRITAIN’s endorsement of the concept of a national home in PALESTINE for the Jewish people. This was to be achieved without prejudice to the rights of the inhabitants of Palestine. The terms of the declaration were incorporated in the mandate of the LEAGUE OF NATIONS establishing British control of Palestine after the war.

Ball, John (d. 1381) priest, rebel leader

A leader of the PEASANTS’ REVOLT of 1381, Ball was an itinerant preacher who had been imprisoned in Kent. The rebels had opened the prisons on their way to LONDON to protest against a POLL TAX and other grievances. Ball joined them and preached to them. When the revolt collapsed, he was tried and executed.

Ballot Act (1872)

In 1872 the secret ballot was introduced for local and national elections. It had been one of the original demands of the Chartists (see CHARTIST

MOVEMENT), but there was strong LIBERAL PARTY

opposition to the measure, as it was deemed less honest than open voting. However, recent scandals in which farm tenants were punished for voting the “wrong way” in open elections, especially in a case in Wales, brought more pressure to pass the act. The act was most influential in Ireland, where voters became able to freely support nationalist candidates.

Baltimore, George Calvert, first baron

(1580–1632) founder of Maryland

A MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT and SECRETARY OF

STATE, Lord Baltimore resigned upon announcing his conversion to Catholicism. In 1632 he received a grant of rights to land in the north of Virginia from CHARLES I. Maryland was named after the king’s Catholic wife, Henrietta Maria. Baltimore wanted the colony to practice toleration in the hopes of encouraging Catholic immigration. He died before visiting his new land, and the colony’s administration passed to his sons.

Bancroft, Richard (1544–1610) archbishop of Canterbury

Promoted to BISHOP of LONDON in 1597 and ARCH- BISHOP of CANTERBURY in 1604, Bancroft was a strong supporter of the hierarchical government of the CHURCH OF ENGLAND. He stoutly opposed the PRESBYTERIANS, and aided in the prosecution of some of their leaders. He helped the efforts of Archbishop WHITGIFT in restoring conformity, supported the publication of the canons of the church, and assisted JAMES VI AND I at the HAMP-

TON COURT CONFERENCE in the year he was made

archbishop.

Bangladesh

A Muslim republic, Bangladesh was recognized as a member of the Commonwealth in 1972. It was formerly East Pakistan and, before 1947, part of Bengal province. It is the most populous

East Asian state, with over 71 million people in an area less than that of England and Wales. A succession of military dictatorships interrupted political development, and floods and famine cost an estimated 5 million lives in the first two decades of independence.

Bank of England

In 1694 PARLIAMENT established the Bank of England to aid in underwriting the costs of warfare with France. A joint-stock company, the bank bought government securities and was allowed to issue its notes as legal tender. It became the state’s central financial institution over the next century, and its position was formalized by the Bank Charter Act of 1844. In 1946 the bank was taken into public ownership; it was privatized in 1998.

Baptists

One of the main groups of Protestant dissenters, the Baptists believed that only adults should be baptized, since only they could understand the ceremony. Their first group formed in 1612 in LONDON. Their numbers grew rapidly in the 19th century, even as the congregation divided between those favoring Calvinist ideals and those favoring the UNITARIANS.

Barbados

This easternmost Caribbean island was uninhabited until settled by the English in 1627. By 1660 the colonists had established sugar plantations worked by slave labor. It became a crown COLONY in 1662 and an independent member of the COMMONWEALTH in 1966. It is the most densely populated Caribbean island, with more than 250,000 people in an area of 166 square miles.

Barnardo, Thomas (1845–1905) philanthropist

Active in the evangelist movement of the 1860s, Barnardo worked as a medical missionary and in

1867 founded the first of a number of homes for impoverished and neglected children. In the 1880s he began a program of sending children to CANADA. His work resulted in the rescue of nearly 60,000 children in his lifetime, and Dr. Barnardo’s Homes continue to help homeless and deprived children today.

Barnet, Battle of (1471)

A critical battle in the Wars of the ROSES. King EDWARD IV had been expelled from the kingdom by his onetime supporter and “kingmaker,” the earl of WARWICK. Edward returned, landing near Hull, and met Warwick’s army north of London. At first the earl’s forces had the advantage, but the tide turned against them and Warwick was killed. Edward followed this victory with an even greater one at TEWKESBURY and secured his hold on power.

baron

Title of nobility introduced by the Normans to describe the more important vassals of the king. A baron had a military rank and attended royal councils, which by the 13th century included PARLIAMENT. In the 14th century more senior titles were created, and the baron became the lowest rank in the developing PEERAGE. The rank of baron was employed when the practice of creating life peers was first used for judges in the 19th century, and for life peers generally after they were authorized by an act in 1958.

baronet

A special order created by JAMES VI AND I in 1611. The baronet was a hereditary knighthood, which title was purchased from the Crown. At first only an English dignity, the Irish baronet was created in 1619 and the Scottish in 1625. As commoners, baronets might sit in the HOUSE OF

COMMONS.

Barrett, Elizabeth See BROWNING, ROBERT.

barrister

A lawyer allowed to plead before the royal courts of COMMON LAW. This regulated status originated in the 16th century and was conferred after attendance at the INNS OF COURT. Selected members of this group were designated as King’s (or Queen’s) Counsel (KC or QC).

Basutoland

Mountainous territory in southern Africa inhabited by tribes that had fled the ZULU and then had troubled relations with the CAPE COLONY and the Boer (Dutch) settlers. The first attempt to seize their land was in 1856. After the discovery of diamonds, there were hostilities between the Basotho people and the Cape Colony. A British PROTEC- TORATE was formed in 1868 and then absorbed into the Cape Colony in 1871. Direct control was asserted over the area from 1884 until the independence of LESOTHO was proclaimed in 1966.

Battle of Britain See BRITAIN, BATTLE OF.

Baxter, Richard (1615–1691)

Puritan minister

A clergyman from a humble background, Baxter was ordained in 1638. He was opposed to extremes in religious controversy, both the ARMINIAN positions of Archbishop LAUD and the doctrinaire Calvinism of PRESBYTERIAN enemies of the royal court. He welcomed the restoration

of CHARLES II, but in the SAVOY CONFERENCE of

1661, he was unable to fashion a compromise. He declined a bishopric and was expelled from

the CHURCH OF ENGLAND under the act of UNI-

FORMITY of the same year. Imprisoned several times for unlicensed preaching, he supported the accession of WILLIAM III and MARY II in 1689.

Beardsley, Aubrey (1872–1898) illustrator

A leading member of the Aesthetic Movement, Beardsley’s drawings in black and white had

great detail and refinement, showing influences of French rococo and Japanese prints. He was the art editor of the Yellow Book, and he did the illustrations for Oscar WILDE’s Salome (1893).

Beaton, David (1494–1546) archbishop of St. Andrews

Beaton had a bishopric in France and was made cardinal in 1538. The next year he succeeded his uncle as ARCHBISHOP at St. Andrews in SCOTLAND. He became chancellor in 1543 and was active in persecuting Protestants. He was responsible for the trial and execution of George WISHART, whose friends attacked and murdered Beaton in St. Andrews Castle.

Beatty, David, first earl (1871–1936) admiral

The youngest British admiral in over 100 years, Beatty was given command of the battlecruiser squadron in 1913 by Winston CHURCHILL. During WORLD WAR I his performance at the battles of Dogger Bank and JUTLAND was not brilliant, but his leadership was effective and helped to gain him command of the Grand Fleet in 1916. After the war he was made first sea lord (1919–27), in which capacity he supervised the reorganization of the fleet and the implementation of the disarmament agreement of the WASHINGTON CON-

FERENCE (1922).

Beaufort family

Descended from John of Gaunt (1340–99), duke of Lancaster and son of EDWARD III, the family held positions of the highest influence in English politics for over a century. John’s eldest son and heir took the throne as HENRY IV (1367–1413). The youngest (legitimized) son of Gaunt, Thomas Beaufort (1377–1426) served his half brother and became chancellor to HENRY V. Another son, Henry Beaufort (1377–1447), was successively BISHOP of Lincoln and Winchester, and a cardinal of the church. In England he held the post of chancellor several times. Edmund