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Boys emphasized individual skills and resourcefulness in what he saw as a vital contribution to imperial service.

Bradlaugh, Charles (1833–1891) radical

An outspoken radical, secularist, and atheist, Bradlaugh edited The National Reformer (1860– ). Elected to PARLIAMENT in 1880, he was not allowed to take his seat because he would not take the oath. He campaigned for the right to make nonreligious affirmation in lieu of oaths, and was reelected three times before he was allowed to take his seat in 1886.

See also BESANT, ANNIE.

Brandon, Charles See SUFFOLK, CHARLES

BRANDON, DUKE OF.

John Bright (Library of Congress)

Breda, Declaration of (1660)

While in exile in Holland, CHARLES II issued a declaration of his intentions upon returning to the throne after the fall of the COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND (April 1660). He offered general pardon and indemnity, pay for the army, and a vague form of toleration (“liberty to tender consciences”), leaving the resolution of most divisive issues to a “free parliament.”

Bright, John (1811–1889) politician, reformer

A Quaker manufacturer from Lancashire, Bright was a key figure in the anti-corn law league. Elected to parliament in 1843, he vigorously supported free trade, opposed the crimean war, and advocated reform of the government of india. He favored limited parliamentary reform and served in several of William gladstone’s cabinets, but he broke with his leader over the issue of irish home rule in 1886.

Brighton, Laurence Kerr Olivier,

baron Olivier of See OLIVIER, LAURENCE KERR, BARON OLIVIER OF BRIGHTON

Brindley, James (1716–1772) canal builder

A self-taught engineer, in 1759–61 Brindley built the canal that connected the coal mines of the duke of Bridgwater with the town of Manchester. The great saving in shipping costs led to several other canal projects for Brindley, part of a boom in canal construction in the latter part of the 18th century. By 1830 there were 4,000 miles of canals in England, but they would soon be overtaken by the railway.

Britain

The Romans called the largest island Britannia, perhaps from the Greek name for the Pretanic islands. The use of the name by Julius Caesar may be a confusion with the Britanni, a name

given to earlier Belgic invaders. The name Briton is usually applied to the CELTS living in the island to distinguish them from incoming Romans, Angles, Saxons, and others. The name GREAT

BRITAIN, encompassing ENGLAND, WALES, and

SCOTLAND, came into regular use from the time of the reign of JAMES VI AND I (1603–25).

Britain, Battle of (1940)

After the fall of France in June 1940, Hitler began preparing operations for an invasion of Britain. The first step was to achieve air superiority, and between July and September the Luftwaffe attacked ROYAL AIR FORCE (RAF) installations in southern England. Both sides suffered heavy losses, the Germans losing nearly twice the number of aircraft as the British. The campaign was close to success, but in September the air offensive was shifted to the BLITZ of LONDON, giving the RAF a much-needed respite. The German invasion plan was called off in October.

See also WORLD WAR II.

British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)

The BBC was established in 1927 under a royal charter. Originally the British Broadcasting Company and subsequently Corporation, it was given a broadcasting monopoly funded by license fees. It began the first television service in 1936, but its monopoly status was ended in the 1950s with the introduction of commercial radio and television. The organization was a public-service body; hence at first it was strictly impartial, which limited its subject matter, perhaps critically, in the 1930s. During WORLD WAR II the BBC’s reputation was enhanced by its effective and diversified coverage of foreign and home events, although of course it operated under the government’s censorship.

British Empire and Commonwealth

The British Empire reached its greatest extent in the early 20th century, with about one-fifth of the world’s land and over 400 million persons

under its rule. From trading companies in the 16th and 17th centuries to colonial settlements from the 17th century to a vast collection of colonial markets and commodity sources in the 19th century, the empire had come to be the largest and wealthiest in world history.

EARLY GROWTH

ENGLAND’s earliest overseas ventures gave no hint at future greatness. Both Spain and Portugal had made immense fortunes from imperial ventures in the Americas and the Far East before there was any sign of English activity. Indeed, the earliest efforts were directed at preying on the treasure fleets of those countries, and only later did English companies and captains seriously work on building garrisons and productive outposts.

MERCANTILE EMPIRE

The 17th-century commercial colonies in the Americas, the West Indies, East Indies, and Africa were designed to be sources of wealth for the home country—protected by the British NAVY, subjected to British commercial regulation, and producing a surplus income that would be the return on GREAT BRITAIN’s investment. The reality did not often agree with the theory. First, the investment was usually larger than expected in terms of military and naval support, government infrastructure, and legislative time and effort. Second, the ventures into colonial commerce were all made with some kind of delegation of authority and promise of profit to the companies or individuals involved. Third, in the most serious cases, as with the AMERICAN COLONIES, the ungrateful settlers might decide that self-govern- ment was preferable to imperial rule. Indeed, by the early 19th century, a growing body of thought had rejected the canon of MERCANTILISM and accepted the doctrine of FREE TRADE.

FREE TRADE EMPIRE

It was said that the British Empire was made “in a fit of absence of mind.” The comment pointed to the lack of any central policy or plan in empire-building. An erratic but escalating series

of ventures in the 18th and 19th centuries brought an expanding number of colonial stations and settlements. The doctrine of free trade said that growth was maximized in inverse proportion to the regulation by government. Less restriction = more trade = more profit. This was further understood to mean less investment by government and more freedom for individual entrepreneurs and businesses, so that government expenditures declined for much of the 19th century. However, all of these rules were challenged in the years after 1870 when other states began to look for colonial markets and mandates.

TWENTIETH-CENTURY EMPIRE

AND COMMONWEALTH

A combination of competition and reform undermined the Victorian empire. Competing industrial economies such as Germany, the United States, and Japan transformed the world economy, making British imperial investment less profitable. Indeed, considering commerce alone, the balance sheet for British colonies was probably in the red for much of the empire’s history, and in the latter days the “invisible exports” (capital, investment income, insurance, and other services) were what kept the accounts reasonably sound. At the same time, political and social reform, at home and abroad, sharply undercut the ethos of British imperial authority. The most important reflection of this was the creation of DOMINIONs, or self-governing dependencies, with ties to Britain in matters other than domestic. Thus CANADA (1867), AUSTRALIA

(1901), NEW ZEALAND (1907), SOUTH AFRICA

(1910), the IRISH FREE STATE (1922), and Southern RHODESIA (1923) were recognized to have this status, and became members of the British Commonwealth.

IMPERIAL DECLINE

After WORLD WAR II, the remaining colonies all looked toward greater freedom, and many gained their independence with looser ties to the Commonwealth. INDIA and PAKISTAN divided the

inheritance of British India. PALESTINE and EGYPT led the march to independence in the Near East. The colonies of AFRICA followed in the 1960s in rapid succession. This rather swift dismantling was naturally a subject of bitter debate and doubt in Britain itself. The British Commonwealth was rechristened the Commonwealth of Nations, and a secretariat was established in 1965 to manage relations within the group of former colonies. Even as this new formation was developing, however, Britain was being drawn into a closer relationship with the countries of

the EUROPEAN COMMUNITY.

British Expeditionary Force

The small British ARMY sent to France in 1914 (four divisions) was important in delaying the German advance at Mons and at the Marne during WORLD WAR I. The same name was applied to the WORLD WAR II force sent to France and Belgium in 1939, eventually 10 divisions and a tank brigade. When the German assault came in May 1940, most of the force was evacuated from

DUNKIRK.

British Honduras See BELIZE.

British Museum

The preeminent public research library and museum collection in Britain got underway with the British Museum Act of 1753. Its initial collections were the artifacts, books, and manuscripts from several private collections, augmented by many further additions, including the Royal Library (1756 and 1822). The new buildings in Bloomsbury were designed and constructed by 1857. They housed rapidly expanding departments of antiquities, not only from ancient Greece and Rome but from EGYPT, Asia, and prehistoric BRITAIN. Continued growth of the library meant that parts of the collection had to be dispersed. In 1973 the British Library was made a separate entity, and the books from the

British Museum and other locations were gathered in a new British Library in St. Pancras, which was opened in 1997.

Britten, (Edward) Benjamin

(1913–1976) composer, pianist

Born in Lowestoft, the son of a dentist, Britten became the most notable modern English composer. His work includes the operas Peter Grimes (1945) and Death in Venice (1973). He also wrote the Spring Symphony (1949) and War Requiem

(1962). In all he composed 12 operas and 13 song cycles. He also was the founder of the Aldeburgh Festival in 1948.

Bronowski, Jacob (1908–1974) scientist, writer

Born in Poland, Bronowski and his family moved to Germany in 1915 and to GREAT BRITAIN in 1920. He studied mathematics at CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY, but his main talent was in scientific writing and later in broadcasting. He wrote Common Sense of Science (1951); Science and Human Values (1958); and William Blake and the Age of Revolution (1965). He is best known for his 13part television documentary, published in book form as The Ascent of Man (1973).

Brontë family

Charlotte (1816–55), Branwell (1817–48), Emily (1818–48), and Anne (1820–49) were the children of Reverend Patrick and Maria Brontë. The Anglo-Irish churchman took a parish in the Yorkshire village of Howarth, where his three daughters lived and wrote. They published poems and a series of novels under male pseudonyms (Cumer, Ellis, and Acton Bell): Jane Eyre (Charlotte) and Wuthering Heights (Emily) and Agnes Grey (Anne) in 1847. Emily and Anne died in the next two years. Their remaining novels were Anne’s The Tenant of Wildfell Hall (1849) and Charlotte’s

Shirley (1849) and Villette (1853). After a brief marriage, Charlotte died in 1855.

Brooke, Alan See ALANBROOKE, ALAN

BROOKE, VISCOUNT.

Brougham and Vaux, Henry Peter Brougham, first baron (1778–1868)

lawyer, politician

Educated in EDINBURGH, Brougham was associated with liberal political figures there and helped to found the Edinburgh Review. Having qualified as an advocate in SCOTLAND, he was admitted to the English bar in 1808 and entered the HOUSE OF COMMONS in 1810. He was a supporter of popular education, the ANTISLAVERY MOVEMENT, and parliamentary reform. He accepted the post of legal adviser to the estranged queen CAROLINE OF BRUNSWICK at the time of the accession of GEORGE IV (1820), a step disapproved by many colleagues. When the WHIGS came into office in 1830 he was named LORD CHANCELLOR (1830–34) and was actively engaged in the passage of the REFORM ACTS of 1832. As a follower of Jeremy BENTHAM, he engaged in many efforts to reform and improve EDUCATION. He called for the inquiry into educational charities in 1819, which produced the Charity Commission; was one of the founders of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in 1825; and cofounded the University of London in 1828.

Brown, Lancelot (1715–1783) landscape designer

Known as “Capability” Brown, because he always referred to the “capabilities” of a landed estate, Brown became one of the foremost designers of estate grounds in the 18th century. He preferred naturalistic settings to the formal designs of his predecessors. He designed 140 estates, including those at Croome Court, Longleat, Chatsworth, and Blenheim.

Browne, Robert (ca. 1550–1633)

Puritan separatist

A PURITAN preacher, Browne came from a wealthy family and attended CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY, where he was influenced by Thomas CART- WRIGHT. Increasingly alienated from all forms of church government, he established independent congregations. Arrested and released, he migrated to the Netherlands, where he continued to write and preach. Returning to ENGLAND, he was imprisoned, submitted to church authority, became a schoolmaster, and later was ordained (1591). He was rector of a parish in Northamptonshire for the rest of his life.

Browning, Robert (1812–1889) poet

The self-educated son of a clerk, Browning spent some time at the University of London, traveled on the continent, and began to write for the stage. With little success there, he turned to publishing collections of poetry. He admired the work of Elizabeth Barrett (1806–61) and after corresponding and courting, they secretly married. Her Sonnets from the Portuguese (1850) and her verse novel Aurora Leigh (1856) were among her best-known works. His collections Dramatic Lyrics (1842) and

Dramatic Romances and Lyrics (1845), as well as his Men and Women (1855) and The Ring and the Book

(1868–69), made him extremely popular. He was

buried in WESTMINSTER ABBEY.

Bruce, Thomas See ELGIN, THOMAS BRUCE,

EARL OF.

Brunel, Isambard Kingdom (1806–1859) engineer

One of the leading engineers of the Victorian age, Brunel designed the Great Western Railway (1835–41). He planned the ships Great Western

(1838), Great Britain (1845), and Great Eastern, the largest steamship of its kind (1858). He also supervised construction of railways in Italy and engineering projects in Australia and India.

Bryce, James Bryce, first viscount

(1838–1922) intellectual, politician

Born in Belfast, Bryce revived the study of Roman law at OXFORD UNIVERSITY and traveled and wrote extensively about the Near East. Elected to PARLIAMENT in 1880, he served in the last cabinet of William GLADSTONE and chaired a ROYAL COMMISSION on education (1894–95). He was successful as the British ambassador to Washington (1907–13), having unusual insights, as evidenced by his book The American Commonwealth (1888). His last work was Modern Democracies (1921).

B.S.E.

Acronym for bovine spongiform encephalopathy, commonly known as “mad cow disease,” first identified in 1985. The outbreak was initially confined to the UNITED KINGDOM, where it claimed 160,000 cattle in the first decade. Caused by feed contaminated by the rendered brains of infected sheep, B.S.E. attacks the nervous system of cattle. The disease can be transmitted from cows to their calves, but more disturbingly, it is now linked to the rare Creutz- feldt-Jacob disease in humans. During this crisis, exports of British beef were prohibited, and domestic consumption and prices fell, compelling the government to provide a subsidy for affected farmers.

Buchan, John, baron Tweedsmuir

(1875–1940) writer, statesman

The son of a Scottish minister, educated at Glasgow and OXFORD UNIVERSITY, Buchan was called to the bar in 1901 from the Middle Temple (see

INNS OF COURT). He worked with the HIGH COM-

MISSION in SOUTH AFRICA (1901–03) on postwar reconstruction and served on the army staff during WORLD WAR I. A Conservative MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT from 1927 to 1935, he was govern or general of CANADA, 1935–40. He published his first novel while at Oxford. In addition to

nonfiction works, he wrote adventure stories, including The Thirty-nine Steps (1915), Greenmantle (1916), Mr Standfast (1918), and John Macnab (1925).

Buchanan, George (1506–1582)

Scottish humanist

Educated in Paris, Buchanan was influenced by the ideas of Erasmus. Returning to his homeland of SCOTLAND during the turbulent reign of MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS (1561–67), he was connected with her court, but after her deposition he wrote a dialogue justifying resistance to tyranny, De Jure Regni apud Scotos (1579). He also compiled Rerum Scoticarum Historia (1582), and both works were dedicated to the young king JAMES VI AND I, who was his pupil.

Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of

(1592–1628) courtier

Favorite of JAMES VI AND I, Buckingham was appointed lord admiral. Involved in a failed plan to marry Prince Charles to the daughter of the Spanish king, he switched to an anti-Spanish policy, planning an abortive raid on Cadiz in 1625. He was kept as senior adviser by CHARLES I on the king’s accession in 1625, and he was responsible for yet another failed expedition, this one to assist French Protestants in La Rochelle in 1627. PARLIAMENT tried to impeach him, and his wide unpopularity inspired an angry army officer to assassinate him in 1628.

Buckingham Palace

The official residence of the monarch in LON- DON. Buckingham House was built in 1702–05 by John Sheffield, duke of Buckingham. It was purchased by GEORGE III in 1762 and altered and enlarged. In 1825–50 there were more extensive additions. Only in Queen VICTORIA’s reign did the palace become the main royal residence. Some of the rooms have been opened to the public since 1993, in order to help pay

for rebuilding of the sections of WINDSOR Castle destroyed by fire in 1992.

budget

The annual plan for government taxation and spending. The practice dates from the 18th century, and since the 19th century it has been the

task of the CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER to pre-

sent the budget in PARLIAMENT each year, or more often in time of crisis. The budget message constitutes the government’s most important overall statement of planning and policy.

Buller, Redvers (1839–1908) soldier

Buller’s early career included service in China and Africa. He became adjutant general and organized the Army Service Corps, which did much to consolidate procurement and transport. Decorated for bravery in the ZULU War (1878–79), he was given command at the start of the BOER WAR, but his orders to remain on the defensive were not obeyed, and several units were under siege by the time he arrived in SOUTH AFRICA. His early efforts were weak and ineffective, and he was replaced in command by

Lord ROBERTS.

Bunker Hill, Battle of (1775)

With BOSTON surrounded by rebel troops, on June 17, 1775, a British force of 2,300 attacked rebel positions on Breed’s Hill. The colonists held off two assaults before being overrun, and they lost less than half the number of men that the British did. This performance was an important boost to the morale of the rebels. The battle was mistakenly named for nearby Bunker Hill.

Bunyan, John (1628–1688)

Puritan writer

A BAPTIST preacher who had served in the rebel army in the CIVIL WAR, he was imprisoned for his refusal to comply with laws against DISSENTERS