Файл: Great Britain_0816044740.pdf

after 1660. During his 12 years in jail he wrote numerous tracts. His most famous work was Pilgrim’s Progress (1684), an extended story of his conversion and of the tribulations of dissenters.

Burdett, Sir Francis (1770–1844) radical politician

A wealthy landowner and patrician reformer who opposed government restriction and advocated “ancient liberties,” Burdett first entered PARLIAMENT in 1796, opposed war with France, and supported parliamentary reform. In 1810 he was imprisoned for breach of parliamentary privilege, and large crowds demonstrated for his release, causing a crisis in which troops had to be called out. He was imprisoned again in 1820 for his attacks on the government after the

PETERLOO MASSACRE. He was MEMBER OF PARLIA-

MENT (MP) for Westminster, one of the most radical of constituencies, from 1807 to 1837, but his style of RADICALISM was that of the 18th century, not his own day. He later became a Conservative MP (1837–44).

burgess

The principal residents of a BOROUGH were summoned, usually in pairs, to attend the PARLIA- MENTs of EDWARD I and later sovereigns. They, in addition to the KNIGHTS of the shire, represented the social classes below the aristocracy, and their presence was desired in order to endorse taxation and other royal policies. There is little evidence that they had any more significant role in the business of Parliament before the 17th century.

Burgess, Anthony (1917–1993) fiction writer

One of the foremost contemporary writers, he served as an education officer in Malaya in the 1950s, during which time his first novel was published (Time for a Tiger, 1956, the first of his Malayan Trilogy; the others were The Enemy in the Blanket [1958] and Beds in the East [1959]).

Stricken with a brain tumor and given one year to live, he returned to England and wrote prodigiously, ultimately producing 29 novels and outliving most of his doctors. His best-known work was A Clockwork Orange (1962).

burgh

The Scots form of BOROUGH—towns with special privileges, either royal burghs or the more numerous burghs of barony or regality, established by feudal lords. Each was entitled to some self-government, and burghs were represented, from the 16th century, in the Convention of Royal Burghs. In addition, from the 14th century, one of the estates of the Scottish parliament had representatives from burghs, which provision was incorporated in the Scottish representation in the Union Parliament after 1707.

Burghley, William Cecil, first baron

(1520–1598) secretary of state

Queen ELIZABETH I’s principal secretary (1558–72) and then lord high treasurer (1572–98), Cecil was a major figure in the settlement of the church after her accession. He helped the Protestants in SCOTLAND, but he had doubts about efforts to aid continental Protestants—the Huguenots in France (1567) and Calvinists in Holland (1585). He persuaded the queen to sign MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS’ death warrant (1587). A masterful administrator, he astutely managed the old TUDOR institutions, but he was not an innovator. He amassed a considerable fortune, which he used as a patron and as a builder of several great houses for his family.

Burgoyne, John (1722–1792) general

During the American Revolution, Burgoyne commanded the British force that invaded New York from CANADA. He took Ticonderoga and Fort Edward, but was forced to surrender to the

Americans at Saratoga (1777). He returned to LONDON, defended his conduct, became an opposition MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT, and wrote plays, the most successful being The Heiress (1786).

Burke, Edmund (1729–1797) politician, philosopher

An Irishman, Burke went to Trinity College in DUBLIN, briefly studied law in LONDON, and entered PARLIAMENT in 1766. He joined the Rockingham WHIGS and spoke in defense of the American colonists and in favor of ECONOMICAL REFORM. His Thoughts on the Present Discontents

(1770) argued that the king was upsetting the constitutional balance by ignoring the place of political parties. He drafted a Civil List Act (1782), which proposed to have ministers’ salaries unpaid until all other expenditures were met, but this failed to achieve the kind of fiscal reform he wanted. Burke was a proponent of religious toleration, and Catholic interests were among those for which he sought relief. His outspoken denunciation of the French revolution (Reflections on the Revolution in France, 1790) is seen as a manifesto for modern conservatism, though it may equally be read as a plea for the traditional liberty of the balanced constitution of 18th-century ENGLAND.

Burma

The EAST INDIA COMPANY had established trading centers by 1612. In 1824 the British saw the Burmese empire as a threat to trade, and a war in that year brought some annexation of territory, followed by more in 1852. Eventually another conflict saw Burma become a province of British INDIA in 1886. A separate administration was established in 1937, but Burma was overrun by the Japanese in 1942; British forces defeated them in 1944. After WORLD WAR II, an independent Burmese socialist republic was established in 1948, and the country left the Commonwealth. In 1988 the military government of Burma changed the name of the country to Myanmar.

Edmund Burke, ca. 1780 (Hulton/Archive)

Burnet, Gilbert (1643–1715) bishop, historian

Educated at Aberdeen, Burnet became professor of divinity at Glasgow University, then moved to LONDON and attached himself to the opposition to the royal court. He wrote a History of the Reformation (1679), for which he received the thanks of PARLIAMENT. In exile in Holland, he was favored by WILLIAM III of Orange, whom he accompanied to ENGLAND at the GLORIOUS REVO- LUTION in 1688. He was made BISHOP of Salisbury and wrote a History of My Own Time, which was not published until 1723–34.

Burns, John (1858–1943) trade unionist

An engineer’s apprentice and a figure in early socialist activity, Burns was a member of the

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC FEDERATION (1884), the Bat-

tersea Labour League, and the Metropolitan Radical Federation. He was prominent in unemployment demonstrations in 1886 and 1887 and the LONDON dock strike of 1889. Elected to PAR- LIAMENT in 1892, he broke with more extreme left wing groups and advocated alliance with the LIBERAL PARTY. In 1905 he became president of the BOARD OF TRADE, the first workingman to become a CABINET minister. He resigned in protest against the war in 1914.

Burns, Robert (1759–1796) poet

Born into a farming family, Burns developed a love of literature and of his native culture. In 1786 he published Poems Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, which brought him critical acclaim and demonstrated that the Scots language was a potent vehicle for polite literature. His next project came in contributions to James Johnson’s

The Scots Musical Museum (1789–1803), for which he produced over 100 vernacular songs and lyrics. Burns died at age 37 of rheumatic heart disease, but his birthday (January 25) continues to be celebrated by Scots around the world to the present day.

Burton, Sir Richard (1821–1890) explorer, author

Burton joined the Indian army in 1842, absorbing as much knowledge as he could of culture and languages of the East and of Africa and America. From his extensive travels he produced a vast number of books, his best-known being the Arabian Nights (1885–88), the Kama Sutra

(1883), and The Perfumed Garden (1886). His most notable travels were his pilgrimage to the forbidden city of Mecca (1853) and the expedition to the source of the Nile, which brought the discovery of Lake Tanganyika (1858).

Bushell’s Case

When the Quakers William PENN and William Mead were tried for illegal preaching and acquit-

ted in 1670, the jurors in the case were fined and imprisoned. The jury foreman, Edward Bushell, obtained a writ of HABEAS CORPUS. When arguments were heard on the writ, Chief Justice Sir John Vaughan ruled that jurors were the sole judges of fact in a trial, and as such they could not be punished for their findings.

Bute, John Stuart, third earl of

(1713–1792)

prime minister, 1762–1763

The tutor to GEORGE III was named as his PRIME MINISTER in 1762. His selection alienated the political leaders of the day, and indeed the young king had wanted to choose advisers who were not from their ranks. Bute’s ability and influence were subject to so many scurrilous attacks that historians have some difficulty making a fair assessment of his career. One particular reaction was the publication by John WILKES called The North Briton, which triggered the important legal case over GENERAL WARRANTS.

Butler, James See ORMONDE, DUKES AND

EARLS OF.

Butler, Josephine (1828–1906) feminist, reformer

A determined social reformer, Butler led the campaign for the repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts, which required the registration, licensing, and examination of prostitutes in garrison towns and ports. The acts were repealed by 1886. Butler was also active in campaigning for higher EDUCATION for women, in stopping the white slave traffic, and working with the National Vigilance Association of W. T. STEAD.

Butler of Saffron Walden, Richard Austen Butler, baron (1902–1982)

Conservative politician

A MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT from 1929, Butler

joined Winston CHURCHILL’s wartime CABINET. As

minister of EDUCATION he was responsible for the 1944 Education Act, which introduced a threetier secondary education system, designed to provide free education for all up to age 15. This plan also contained the “11-plus” examination, aimed at determining which level of the system was right for each child. A leader of the moderate wing of the CONSERVATIVE PARTY, Butler held most high posts in government, but he was passed over for the office of PRIME MINISTER in 1957 and 1963.

Butt, Isaac (1813–1879)

Irish lawyer, politician

A Protestant lawyer, Butt was defense counsel for the YOUNG IRELAND leaders in 1848. While once a conservative supporter of the BRITISH EMPIRE, he found himself leaning toward a nationalist position in Irish politics. He believed that IRELAND’s economic woes would be offset by a measure of autonomy in an Irish parliament. He was the counsel for the FENIAN BROTHERHOOD bombers in 1868, thus polishing his nationalist credentials. In 1870 he helped in the formation of the Home Government Association, and in 1873 he assisted the HOME RULE League. By 1874 a corps of 58 MPs were supporting the cause, but more radical tactics like those of Charles Stewart PARNELL forced Butt into the background.

by-election

When a member of the HOUSE OF COMMONS dies, resigns, or becomes disqualified, a special election, called a by-election, is held to fill the vacancy. The contest is conducted in the constituency, with assistance from the national parties. The outcome of these elections is scrutinized

carefully for any sign of trends which may affect national politics.

Byng, John (1704–1757) admiral

A son of the naval hero George Byng (1664– 1733), the victor over a Spanish fleet in 1718, John Byng was rear admiral by 1745. When the SEVEN YEARS’ WAR began, he was sent to protect the garrison on the island of Minorca. Upon arrival he found that the French had already landed, so he retreated to GIBRALTAR, and the garrison had to surrender. There was an outcry at this performance, and Byng was court-mar- tialled and executed. This was the opportunity for the French author Voltaire to comment that the English liked to execute an admiral from time to time pour encourager les autres (“to encourage the others”).

Byron, George Gordon Noel Byron, sixth baron (1788–1824)

poet

Heir to a title and modest income, Lord Byron attended Harrow and CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY and then went on to a grand tour and a life of dissipation. He was nevertheless capable of hard work and zealous political involvement. In 1812 the publication of the first two cantos of Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage brought him great acclaim and patronage. He published a series of verse romances and became a leading figure in ROMANTICISM. He left England in 1816, participated in the Italian nationalist movement, and in 1824 went to fight in the Greek war for independence. He died of a fever at Missolonghi.

cabinet

Royal government always required the active participation of advisers, councillors, or ministers. By the late 17th century the PRIVY COUNCIL, which had performed that function for TUDOR and STUART sovereigns, had become too large and unwieldy. CHARLES II began to consult a small inner group—as his ancestors had also undoubtedly done—which often met in the king’s chamber, or cabinet. These meetings became more regular, and by the reign of GEORGE I the king attended less often, allowing one of his ministers, typically the first lord of the TREASURY, to chair the meetings. Thus began the development of the position of PRIME MINISTER.

The cabinet included the leading members (peers and commoners) of the party or parties controlling a majority of the seats in the HOUSE OF COMMONS. This convention emerged since that body had become the de facto controller of finance by the end of the 17th century. It was also at this time that the WHIG and TORY parties began to form, since partisan politics only became legitimate after the revolutions of that century. It took until the end of the 18th century for a clear idea of cabinet unity and party loyalty to evolve. By the 19th century, it had become an accepted convention that all members would support a cabinet decision once made (“collective responsibility”).

In the 20th century cabinets became more highly structured. In 1916 a cabinet secretariat was established to maintain a record of the decisions and actions of the cabinet. It is remarkable that until such a late date there was no formal record of cabinet meetings. The debates and

actions of cabinets were only recorded in the private papers of ministers, who took those with them when they left the government. But since 1916 the proceedings have become much more formal. Also, a system of cabinet committees has developed to cope with the increasing volume and complexity of government business. The prime minister can establish a committee to oversee policy and legislation in any area, and it will report to the full cabinet, thus streamlining the work of the central body. The sovereign still appoints all ministers, on the advice of the prime minister, although today that royal power is ceremonial.

Cabot, John (ca. 1450–1498) explorer

A Genoese mariner who had sailed for Venice and Spain, Cabot came to Bristol in 1493 and mounted an expedition to cross the Atlantic with his son Sebastian Cabot (1474–1557). On their second attempt they reached NEWFOUND- LAND and NOVA SCOTIA. They mapped the waters of the Atlantic coast down to the Carolinas, but John died on his next voyage, while Sebastian went on to become cartographer to HENRY VIII and governor of the MERCHANT VENTURERS.

Cade’s Rebellion (1450)

The defeats in France were accompanied by high taxes and rising public hostility to royal officials. The king’s chief adviser, William de la POLE, duke of Suffolk, was being sent into exile in 1450, when he was murdered in a boat off Dover. The

government inflicted reprisals on the people of Kent, and this produced a general uprising, wherein a large army of peasants and some gentry marched on London. Their leader was one Jack Cade, about whom little is known. After executing several courtiers, the rebels were forced to leave LONDON, and in spite of a royal pardon, Cade was hunted down and killed. The rebellion had no significant consequence, except that it was a prelude to battles within the aristocracy, known as the Wars of the ROSES.

Cairns, Hugh Cairns, first earl

(1819–1885) lord chancellor

A barrister and MP for BELFAST, Cairns was the first Irishman to be lord chancellor of ENGLAND. He was a legal reformer who worked closely with his counterpart in the LIBERAL PARTY, Lord SELBORNE. He headed a royal commission on the judicial system, which recommended sweeping changes in the judiciary, embodied in the JUDI- CATURE ACT of 1873. This created the modern structure of a HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE and a court of APPEAL. While it initially did away with the right of appeal to the HOUSE OF LORDS, that was restored by another act in 1876.

Calais

Port on the French coast of Flanders, opposite Dover. Captured by the English in 1347, it was held until 1558. A staging area for invasion and a port of entry for English wool exports, it was a colonial outpost which required heavy expenditure and a garrison of troops. The defenses were allowed to decline, and the French recaptured it in 1558.

Calcutta

English trading post established in 1690 in BEN- GAL, which began to rival the port of Madras. Fortified after English victories under Robert

CLIVE, it became the administrative center for the EAST INDIA COMPANY. In 1834 it became the capital of British INDIA, until it was replaced by NEW DELHI in 1912.

Callaghan, James (1912– ) prime minister, 1976–1979

James Callaghan grew up in relative poverty and left school at 16, taking a job as a tax officer. He joined his local union and rose to the position of assistant general secretary of the Inland Revenue Staff Federation in 1936. Callaghan was first elected to PARLIAMENT as a candidate for the LABOUR PARTY in Cardiff in 1945. An effective debater, he soon rose in the ranks of the party. When Labour formed a government in 1964,

Callaghan was made CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHE-

QUER, in which post he had to struggle with a series of financial crises that led to the devaluation of the pound sterling in 1967. Callaghan moved to the HOME OFFICE, where in 1969 he was responsible for sending troops into NORTHERN IRELAND to try to quell the violence there. In a later Labour government, Callaghan served as foreign secretary, and he was involved with continuing negotiations on the terms of Britain’s

entry into the EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY. When HAROLD WILSON resigned as PRIME MINISTER

and party leader in 1976, Callaghan was chosen by the party to replace him. Due to high inflation and government deficits, Callaghan faced a period of serious economic discontent. The government was forced to seek financial aid from the International Monetary Fund, and Callaghan tried to bring in a policy of wage restraint. He was opposed by union leaders and confronted with a series of strikes. Because of that, his government lost a VOTE OF CONFIDENCE (by one vote) and then lost the ensuing general election of 1979 to MAR- GARET THATCHER and the Conservatives.

Calvert, George See BALTIMORE, GEORGE

CALVERT, FIRST BARON.

Cambridge University

In the Middle Ages schools were conducted by the clergy in monasteries and cathedrals. More advanced learning came in communities of scholars under some form of patronage; these “colleges” became more numerous from the 12th century (Bologna, Paris, Oxford). Cambridge University dates its origin to around 1209, when a group of scholars left OXFORD UNI- VERSITY after a local dispute and migrated to Cambridge. The first chancellor was recorded in 1225. The first college foundation was that of Peterhouse in 1284. The university provides the

general governing structure and manages properties, libraries, laboratories, and awards degrees. The colleges are autonomous endowed institutions that house teachers, researchers, and students.

There were 11 college foundations before the REFORMATION, five more in the 16th century, and none thereafter until six were founded in the 19th century and six more in the 20th century. The major reform in the nature and structure of university education came in the middle of the 19th century, when general examinations were introduced. University lecturers were added in

1868, and soon after, courses were opened to women, religious tests were abolished, and modern scientific laboratories were added to the school. The main changes in the 20th century have been public provision of tuition and more open access to education based on merit. These have diluted the once aristocratic tone of all higher EDUCATION along with the rapid expansion of UNIVERSITIES after 1960.

Camden, William (1551–1623) historian

Camden taught at Westminster School (1575– 97) and helped to establish the Society of Antiquaries (1585). He traveled widely across ENGLAND and collected information for his Britannia, a survey of the counties of England, published in Latin (1586) and later in English (1600). He also wrote a contemporary history,

Annals of Queen Elizabeth (1615), employing state papers to which he was given access by his patron, William CECIL, Lord Burghley.

Cameron, Richard (1648–1680)

Scottish religious leader

A schoolteacher in Fife, he later became a PRES- BYTERIAN field preacher. He was not present when a group of COVENANTERS were beaten at the Battle of Bothwell Bridge in 1679, but in 1680 he issued a declaration denouncing CHARLES II and declaring him deposed. Royal troops hunted him down and killed him. This action hardened the resistance of covenanters, some now called “Cameronians.” They rejected attempts at compromise in 1689, and they refused to join the restored Presbyterian CHURCH

OF SCOTLAND.

Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND)

The CND was formed in 1958 by a group of intellectuals who advocated unilateral nuclear disarmament, including Bertrand RUSSELL and

J. B. PRIESTLEY. Annual marches were held from the Aldermaston nuclear base in Berkshire to Trafalgar Square in London, drawing as many as 100,000 people. In 1960 the

endorsed unilateral disarmament, but reversed this view the next year. A test-ban treaty in 1963 reduced the size of the CND, but it revived dur-

ing the 1980s when the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY

ORGANIZATION announced plans to place cruise missiles at British bases. As many as 400,000 attended its Hyde Park rally in 1982, but after further arms treaties were signed, the group’s membership declined again.

Campbell family

A major name in Scots history, the Campbells were leaders in Argyll from the early period of the revival of the MONARCHY in the 14th century. As allies of the Crown in the 15th century, the Campbell earls increased their power in the Southwest and the Isles, and with time there were important branches established throughout SCOTLAND. Members of the Campbell clan were adversaries of the STUART clan, but by the end of the century they had become Crown agents, as at the GLENCOE MASSACRE (1692). They were among the supporters of the UNION (1707), and they were allies of the Crown against the JACOBITES in the 1740s.

Campion, Edmund (1540–1581)

Jesuit martyr

The son of a bookseller in LONDON, Campion attended OXFORD UNIVERSITY, and after converting to Catholicism he made his way to Douai (1571) and thence to Rome, where he joined the JESUIT order in 1573. In 1580 he was sent on a mission to ENGLAND, news of which alarmed the government of Queen ELIZABETH I. He was apprehended in Berkshire, taken to London, and tortured on the rack. He refused to recant or to confess to the fabricated charges of treason against him. He was executed in December 1581.