Файл: Great Britain_0816044740.pdf

to become law in 1829. The emancipation act also called for the abolition of the Catholic Association, but this was an empty gesture, as the aim of that body had been achieved.

Catholic emancipation (1829)

This term meant removal of restrictions on Roman Catholics from full participation in political life. Laws that had severely limited legal, economic, and political rights dated from the 16th century and were fashioned into a code of PENAL LAWS in the early 18th century. But such legislation failed, and by the 1770s it was being modified. By 1800 the main remaining limit was denial of the ability to sit in PARLIAMENT or to hold civil offices. William PITT proposed to do away with this ban as part of the act of UNION in 1800, but GEORGE III refused, saying that it would violate his coronation oath as defender of the church. Both the WHIGS and the TORY Party were divided on the issue and loath to bring it forward, given the king’s objections. The Catholic Relief Act of 1829 allowed Roman Catholics to sit in Parliament and to hold public offices, except

those of regent, LORD LIEUTENANT, or LORD CHAN-

CELLOR. This Act coincided with the end of the Tory Party’s rule of the previous half-century.

Cato Street Conspiracy (1820)

A group of extreme radicals plotted to murder the members of the CABINET at dinner in 1820. The group had been infiltrated by government spies, and members were arrested at a meeting in a stable in Cato Street in London. Five members of the group were tried and executed.

Cavalier Parliament (1661–1679)

In 1660 the CONVENTION Parliament invited CHARLES II to return to the throne. That PARLIA- MENT was irregular because it was not summoned by a king. Nevertheless it sat for the rest of 1660, and in the following year a new, legitimate parliament was elected. Because it contained a large

number of royalists, many of whom had fought for the Crown in the CIVIL WAR, it was given the nickname “cavalier,” the tag used for royalist supporters. This parliament remained in session (though prorogued many times) until 1679.

Cavell, Edith (1865–1915) nurse

A native of Norfolk, Cavell was the matron of a Red Cross hospital in Brussels, Belgium, from where she helped a number of allied soldiers to escape during WORLD WAR I. The German authorities arrested her, and she was tried by court-mar- tial and shot in October 1915. She thus became a national martyr.

Cavendish, Lord Frederick Charles

(1836–1882)

The second son of William, seventh duke of Devonshire, and a graduate of Trinity College,

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY, Cavendish had been a MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT for the West Riding of

Yorkshire since 1865. He served as private secretary to William GLADSTONE, who chose him to be chief secretary for IRELAND (1882). This was a critical point in relations with Ireland, as Gladstone had only recently made a deal with Charles PARNELL to reduce violent confrontations. The so-called KILMAINHAM TREATY allowed Parnell to be released from jail on condition that he order his followers desist from violent acts. That “treaty” led to the resignation of the chief secretary William E. FORSTER, thus requiring the appointment of a replacement.

When Cavendish arrived in DUBLIN on May 6, 1882, he met Thomas Burke, the undersecretary, and as the two walked through Phoenix Park in the center of the city, they were murdered in broad daylight by a gang of terrorists armed with surgical knives who called themselves “the Invincibles.” They apparently had no connection with Parnell or his section of the IRISH HOME RULE movement, although that was hardly credible to the British public at the time.

The outrage led to a new Coercion Act, but it also put more pressure on Gladstone and Parnell to find solutions to the Irish problems.

Cavendish, Henry (1731–1810) scientist

The grandson of the second duke, and a millionaire, he was a serious and brilliant scientific investigator. He presented a paper to the ROYAL SOCIETY in 1766 on the discovery of hydrogen (“inflammable air”). In 1784 he followed up with a demonstration that the product of hydrogen and oxygen was water. He studied the density of the earth and made experiments with electricity. The Cavendish Laboratory at CAM- BRIDGE UNIVERSITY was founded in his memory.

Cavendish, Spencer See HARTINGTON,

SPENCER CAVENDISH, MARQUESS OF.

Cavendish, Thomas (1560–1592) sailor

Cavendish led an exploration of Carolina in 1585, his ship sailing under the command of Sir Richard Grenville. The next year Grenville planned to copy Sir Francis DRAKE’s circumnavigation of the globe (1577–80), and though they captured a Spanish treasure ship, Cavendish squandered his wealth. He and John Davis set out for China in 1591, but they never reached the Pacific, and Cavendish died somewhere in the Atlantic.

Cavendish, William, duke of

Devonshire See DEVONSHIRE, WILLIAM CAVENDISH, FOURTH DUKE OF.

Caxton, William (ca. 1422–1491) printer

A merchant in Kent, Caxton engaged in trade with the Continent, learned the art of printing in Cologne, and had a printing shop in Bruges.

In 1476 he moved back to England, where he set up the first press in Westminster. He published nearly 100 titles ranging over many different subjects. While his printing was not deemed to be of high quality, his influence on English language and culture was enormous.

Cecil, Robert See SALISBURY, ROBERT

GASCOYNE CECIL, MARQUESS OF.

Cecil, Sir Robert (1563–1612) statesman

The son of William CECIL, Lord Burghley, ELIZA- BETH I’s chief minister. He took over his father’s role and was SECRETARY OF STATE from 1596 until 1608. He was an important figure in the smooth transition of government from Elizabeth to JAMES VI AND I. The king elevated him to the PEERAGE, and in 1608 made him lord treasurer. In that post Cecil had the unenviable task of trying to control the king’s expenditures and raise his revenue. He put together a remarkable art collection and rebuilt Hatfield House as a palatial residence for his successors.

Cecil, William, See BURGHLEY, WILLIAM

CECIL, FIRST BARON.

Celts

The name of the major ethnic group of central and western Europe, identified by Greek writers and mentioned by Julius Caesar. The Celts occupied the British Isles in the last days of prehistory, from about 500 B.C. into the time of the Roman occupation. They were a tribal people, led by a class of fierce warriors, worshipping a naturalist religion with Druid priests. The Romans subjugated the area approximating to modern ENGLAND, while WALES and SCOTLAND were not conquered but had garrisons controlling them. IRELAND, on the other hand, was untouched by Roman occupation. Thus there were different degrees of survival of Celtic

traditions. The native languages, which scholars divided into goidelic (Irish and Scottish GAELIC, and Manx) and brythonic (Welsh, Cornish, and Breton), can still be seen in today’s place names. However, from the time of the Norman Conquest onward, the spread of English colonization erased any political power among Celtic peoples, leaving varied levels of identity. The social and cultural traditions were preserved in Ireland and Wales, and the Christian church as formed in Celtic Ireland spread over much of Scotland and part of Northern England, while most of the South was being reconverted by Roman missions. The myths and traditions of these areas have had several revivals in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. There is now strenuous effort to study and preserve the languages (Cornish and Manx have expired). There are periodic festivals and celebrations of ancient poetry and art, and archeologists have helped to fill a growing number of museum collections with artifacts since the 19th century. In sum, the tradition of the aboriginal inhabitants of the British Isles is now, belatedly, recognized as a matter of serious scientific, historical, and social value.

See also CLAN; EISTEDDFODAU; OSSIAN; PEARSE,

PATRICK.

census

There were several attempts from the 17th century on to calculate the population of ENGLAND. In the course of the 18th century many European countries instituted a census as a tool of public policy. The debate over the matter went on, with opponents citing their concern for British liberty and fear of foreign influence. Only during the critical years of the French wars was the project deemed necessary. The Census Act of 1800, sponsored by Charles ABBOT, began the practice, and the census has been taken at 10-year intervals since 1801.

Ceylon

A large island south of INDIA, whose first European contact was with Portuguese and Dutch

merchants. The EAST INDIA COMPANY took possession for the Crown in 1796 during the French wars. A plantation economy was developed, producing cinnamon, coconut, tea, coffee, and rubber. Political reforms came fairly early: a legislative council in 1912 and universal suffrage in 1931. Independence and Commonwealth membership came in 1948, and in 1972 the country gained full independence as the Republic of SRI

LANKA.

Chadwick, Edwin (1800–1890) reformer

A barrister and a social critic, associated with

Jeremy BENTHAM and UTILITARIANISM, Chadwick

served on the Poor Law Commission (1832) and the Factory Commission (1833). Probably his greatest contribution was his Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain (1842), which led to the Public Health Act of 1848 and the Board of Health, on which he worked from 1848 to 1854.

Chalmers, Thomas (1780–1847) churchman, social reformer

Chalmers entered St. Andrews University at age 11, and in 1823 he became professor of moral philosophy there. His main career was as a preacher and writer. His brand of EVANGELICAL Christianity had a strong element of social welfare, but through private charity, not the state. He was the minister of the Tron Church and of St. John’s parish in Glasgow. In 1832, while professor of divinity at the University of EDINBURGH, he was made Moderator of the GENERAL ASSEM-

BLY of the CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. In 1834 he pro-

posed what was called the Veto Act, a proviso that allowed a parish to reject a minister chosen by the patron. This became a major legal dispute, and when the court of SESSION ruled against such provisions, Chalmers led the secession movement, later known as the DISRUPTION, in 1843. He then became the Moderator of the new

FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND.

Chamberlain, (Arthur) Neville

(1869–1940)

prime minister, 1937–1940

The son of Joseph CHAMBERLAIN, Neville Chamberlain had a successful career in manufacturing in Birmingham. He entered politics late, serving as mayor of Birmingham in 1915 and as a MEM- BER OF PARLIAMENT from 1918. He held the post of Minister of Health (1923, and 1924–29), in which capacity he designed a new pension plan, promoted the construction of council housing, and supervised the dismantling of the old poor

law. As CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER in the

National Government (1931–37), he abandoned FREE TRADE and adopted a general TARIFF which

excluded the empire, a shadow of his father’s IMPERIAL PREFERENCE scheme. In 1937 he succeeded Stanley BALDWIN as PRIME MINISTER, just in time to confront the growing threat of Germany, Italy, and Japan. He proposed to meet these threats with an active policy of APPEASE- MENT, effectively buying off the aggressor states with concessions. This popular approach was expected to forestall fighting and provide more time for rearmament. The climax of the policy came in 1938 when Chamberlain flew to Munich to meet with Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and French premier Edouard Daladier. He conceded the Sudeten borderlands of Czechoslovakia to Germany, and in return he received a

written promise from Hitler that there would be no further aggression. Within six months, that promise was broken, and the British government ended appeasement by making an Anglo-Polish alliance in 1939. After WORLD WAR II broke out, Chamberlain was forced to resign in May 1940.

Chamberlain, Joseph (1836–1914) politician

Chamberlain was a Birmingham manufacturer, successful in local politics, who applied progressive measures to the reform of the city. Elected to PARLIAMENT as a Liberal in 1876, he soon became a leader of the radical wing, a critic of the aristocracy, and a proponent of extensive reforms. But he was unhappy with what he saw as weak foreign and imperial policies in his own

LIBERAL PARTY. He broke with William GLADSTONE

over IRISH HOME RULE, leading the large LIBERAL UNIONIST faction toward eventual reconciliation with the TORY Party. He served in the Conservative CABINET of Lord SALISBURY as colonial secretary and was notably involved in the fruitless negotiations before the BOER WAR. He caused another major party split when in 1903 he opened a campaign for TARIFF reform, under the label IMPERIAL PREFERENCE, a scheme to draw the colonies and GREAT BRITAIN into ever closer ties in a unified trading system. The Conservatives divided on the issue and suffered a major loss in the 1906 election.

Chamberlain, (Joseph) Austen

(1863–1937) politician

The son of Joseph CHAMBERLAIN, Austen Chamberlain was a MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT from 1892 to 1937. He served in many ministerial posts,

including CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER, secre-

tary of state for INDIA, and foreign secretary. In the last post he negotiated the 1925 Locarno Treaty, which normalized relations between France and Germany. This won him the Nobel Peace Prize.

chancellor of the exchequer

The CABINET minister responsible for fiscal and economic policy. He or she presents a BUDGET each year which embodies the government’s main policy decisions. The office came from the ancient court of the EXCHEQUER, where from an early date a clerk of that body acted in the name of the high chancellor. That clerk was also a deputy to the lord treasurer, which post was the official base of the office of PRIME MINISTER in the 17th and 18th centuries. As that political role evolved, the responsibilities of the TREASURY board were delegated to the chancellor of the exchequer, who became the government’s main financial officer.

Chancery, Court of

The chancery was the royal writing office, headed by the LORD CHANCELLOR. As he held the GREAT SEAL, he was responsible for the issue of WRITS, or royal orders of all kinds, including the original writs which initiated legal proceedings. The chancellor also saw all petitions to the Crown seeking royal justice; some were outside the jurisdiction of the COMMON LAW courts, and some might be from dissatisfied suitors in those courts. The chancellor began to act on these petitions, using what came to be known as EQUITY jurisdiction. By the end of the 15th century, this practice had produced an entirely new royal court, the Chancery.

See also COURTS OF LAW; JUDICATURE ACT; MAS-

TER OF THE ROLLS.

Channel Islands

Located in the English Channel, at one point only 10 miles from France, the four major islands are Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark. These possessions of the English Crown were retained when king John lost the duchy of Normandy to France in 1204. Jersey is the largest of the islands, and it forms one of two bailiwicks, with a lieutenant governor appointed by the Crown. Guernsey, with Alderney and Sark, form

the other bailiwick. The islands have their own laws, courts, legislative assemblies, and currency.

charity schools

There was a long tradition of bequests to establish schools for the poor, a practice that accelerated in the 16th century. Along with some much older foundations, these often became the GRAM- MAR or “public” schools which served the elite of society. At the end of the 17th century a movement began to establish schools for poor children, by subscription rather than endowment. There was a strong religious motive, namely to educate and catechize as many of the poor as possible. The

CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE (1698) was in the forefront of English school foundation. In SCOTLAND there was a statutory measure for parochial schools in 1696, rising from very similar motives. In WALES the schools of the Welsh Trust in the 1670s were a similar effort, as were the “circulating schools” of Griffith Jones in the 1730s. In IRELAND there were school ventures in the 18th century designed to promote Protestant faith at the expense of Roman Catholicism, and at the same time Catholic children were taught by itinerant schoolmasters in the so-called “hedge schools.” These efforts were overtaken by more secular state-supported educational provision in the 19th century.

See also EDUCATION; SUNDAY SCHOOLS.

Charles I (1600–1649)

king of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1625–1649

The second son of JAMES VI AND I, Charles became the heir apparent when his brother Henry died in 1612. The problems of his reign revolved around religious and constitutional issues which were evident long before he came to the throne. Where his father was in favor of compromising differences between Protestants and Catholics, even trying to take a middle ground during the bloody Thirty Years’ War in Europe, Charles was

decidedly in favor of more conservative policies, as reflected in his courtship of the Spanish Infanta and his marriage to the French princess Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII. He also favored the positions and practice of the so-called

ARMINIAN faction in the CHURCH OF ENGLAND, as

opposed to the PURITANS, who were well-repre- sented in PARLIAMENT. As for that body, Charles believed that his royal PREROGATIVE entitled him to full allegiance, and when Parliament refused financial support, he regarded this as something close to treason. He dissolved his first parliament (1625) when it failed to provide him with adequate funds; he dissolved the second when it attempted to impeach the royal favorite George Villiers, duke of BUCKINGHAM. The third parliament saw further battles result in the concession of the PETITION OF RIGHT (1628). Still more disputes led Charles to dissolve the body in 1629 and to govern without a parliament for 11 years.

During this period of personal rule, Charles used powerful and autocratic councillors: the earl of STRAFFORD as his chief officer, first in IRE- LAND and then in ENGLAND; and William LAUD, his ARCHBISHOP of CANTERBURY, as the principal agent of his religious policy. Their acts were seen as tending toward authoritarian rule—for instance, Strafford’s policies of challenging land claims in Ireland and Laud’s vigorous campaign against Puritans in England. In 1637 Charles authorized a new prayer book for SCOTLAND, which led to the BISHOPS’ WARS. That conflict forced the king to summon a new parliament, though on the first occasion (April–May 1640) the did little more than harangue the king. He soon had to summon another, and when this LONG PARLIAMENT met, Charles had to accept many of its proposals because of his desperate financial need. In these circumstances of distrust, there was a rebellion in Ireland in late 1641, wherein a large number of Protestants were killed by Catholics in ULSTER. The question of raising an army underscored the fears of both sides and brought out further constitutional arguments in the GRAND REMON- STRANCE. In January 1642 the king ordered the