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arrest of five MPs, and he personally led a company of soldiers into the HOUSE OF COMMONS to apprehend them. They had escaped, but now the use of force had become inevitable.

The king withdrew from LONDON in 1642. Parliament made a series of even more radical demands limiting royal power in the NINETEEN PROPOSITIONS, and in August the king raised the royal standard at Nottingham, calling upon his loyal subjects to help him subdue his treacherous enemies. The CIVIL WAR—or, as some call it, the War of the Three Kingdoms—had begun. The rebels’ armies defeated the king at the battles of MARSTON MOOR (1644) and NASEBY (1645), and the king surrendered in 1646. For the next three years he tried to bargain with allies in England and Scotland, and when royalist resistance led to uprisings and a brief campaign on his behalf, the army (see Oliver CROMWELL) and the radical Parliament leaders (see Sir Henry VANE the elder) decided to put Charles on trial. He was convicted of treason by an extraordinary HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE in 1649 and executed. His brave defense at trial and his dignified behavior on the scaffold were his finest moments. His two

sons, CHARLES II and JAMES VII AND II, would later

succeed him on the throne.

See also CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, EARL OF;

MONTROSE, JAMES GRAHAM, MARQUESS OF; NEW MODEL ARMY; PYM, JOHN; RUPERT, PRINCE.

Charles II (1630–1685)

king of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1660–1685

The eldest son of CHARLES I and Henrietta Maria, Charles II had been at the Battle of EDGEHILL at age 12. He held a nominal command in the west at age 15, and he went into exile the following year. At his father’s death he was proclaimed king in EDINBURGH and DUBLIN; he was then 19. He commissioned the marquess of MONTROSE, who had served his father so well in the CIVIL WAR, to campaign for him, but he then made a pact with the Scottish COVENANTERS (who defeated and executed Montrose in 1650). Charles led a Scot-

tish army into ENGLAND, was defeated by Oliver CROMWELL at Worcester (1651), and escaped to France.

In 1660, with the republicans at odds in England, Charles issued the declaration of BREDA, announcing his proposed settlement upon being restored to the throne. His return was met with general relief and some rejoicing. Charles did try to institute a tolerant policy, meeting with rival parties and issuing a DECLA-

RATION OF INDULGENCE. But his CAVALIER PARLIA-

MENT would have none of it. They passed the series of laws known as the CLARENDON CODE, which imposed severe restrictions on DISSENTERS.

The economy of the RESTORATION era was expanding rapidly under the influence of trade and financial growth. The NAVIGATION ACTS were carried over from the 1650s and boosted trade in English ships. Financial reform was in some cases accelerated by the king’s errors, for example the “Stop of the Exchequer” when he defaulted on royal loans in 1672. This made it necessary to base government borrowing on a more secure footing, and that eventually led to the establishment of the NATIONAL DEBT.

The king’s religion was always a matter of concern. Charles had married the Catholic princess Catherine of Braganza, but they produced no heirs. Religion was also a diplomatic factor. Charles made a secret treaty with France in which he promised to foster a Catholic restoration. That this was possible may be doubted, but in any event, on his deathbed Charles received the last rites as a Catholic. The issue of religion intersected with the question of the constitution in the most serious crisis of the reign. It was known that the king’s brother JAMES VII AND II was a Roman Catholic, and his succession was opposed by many Protestants. In 1679 there was a wild story of a POPISH PLOT to kill Charles and place James on the throne. Although this fabrication was exposed (after months of near panic), there was substantial opposition in PARLIAMENT, and a series of EXCLUSION bills were introduced to deprive James of the right to succeed his brother. These led to the dismissal of three parliaments

(1679–81) and the decision by Charles not to summon another one. The atmosphere was further heated by the abortive

(1683) to seize the king. Thus, by the end of his reign Charles had seen politics and religion return to the state of explosive danger that he had witnessed during his father’s rule.

See also DANBY, THOMAS OSBORNE, EARL OF;

DOVER, TREATY OF.

Charles, prince of Wales (1948– ) heir to the throne

The first son of Queen ELIZABETH II, Charles was created PRINCE OF WALES in 1958, and an elaborate investiture ceremony was held in Caernarfon Castle in 1969. He trained as a pilot after graduating from CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY, and he served in the NAVY (1971–76). He became an outspoken critic of modern architecture and made known his views on other subjects such as the environment. His public utterances and his private life have been thoroughly scrutinized by the press. He was married (1981–96) to Lady Diana Spencer (see DIANA, PRINCESS OF WALES), and they had two sons, William (1982) and Henry (1984). The couple separated in 1992, and they were divorced in 1996. Charles has risen in public esteem in recent years, and he will eventually succeed his mother to the throne.

Chartist movement

While moderate political reform had been achieved in the REFORM ACTs of 1832, those who did not qualify under the new property franchise still felt entitled to participate in the new political system. In 1836 William LOVETT organized the London Workingmen’s Association and later drafted the People’s Charter, which called for universal male suffrage, the SECRET BALLOT, equal electoral districts, an end to property qualifications for MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT, payment of salary to MPs, and annual elections. Except for the last point, Lovett’s proposals were a forecast of changes which would occur over the next

century. But at the time, such ideas were alien to the aristocratic society and government of GREAT BRITAIN. Local associations were formed, and the Chartists (as supporters of the People’s Charter were called) held national meetings and presented petitions to PARLIAMENT in 1839, 1842, and 1848. These were all rejected, proving to many Chartists that only physical force would succeed. But riots in Birmingham, a violent clash in Newport (1839), and riots in northern England (1842) only proved to the establishment that the Chartists were dangerous ideologues. When a mass demonstration gathered to present the third petition in 1848, police and troops in LONDON were on alert, but the body dispersed peacefully. Despite its many conventions and assemblies, which some members hoped would become alternative legislatures, Chartism was fundamentally a nonrevolutionary form of protest, mixed with varied degrees of economic and social radicalism. The organization may have failed because it was constitutional; its agenda succeeded for the same reason.

See also CARLYLE, THOMAS; O’BRIEN, JAMES BRONTERRE; O’CONNOR, FEARGUS.

Chatham, first earl of See PITT, WILLIAM,

FIRST EARL OF CHATHAM.

Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, fourth earl of (1694–1773)

diplomat, author

A member of PARLIAMENT before entering the PEERAGE (1726), Chesterfield was on good terms with GEORGE II but not the king’s wife. He was a privy councillor and served as ambassador to the Hague (1728–32), LORD LIEUTENANT of IRE-

LAND (1745), and SECRETARY OF STATE (1746). An

accomplished classical scholar and a friend and patron of writers, including Alexander POPE, Voltaire, and Samuel JOHNSON, he wrote widely in periodicals of his day, chiefly on current political subjects. His Letters to His Son was published by his son’s widow (1774). The book’s letters

were addressed to an illegitimate son and contained frank and witty advice on life in fashionable society.

Chichester, Sir Arthur (1563–1625) lord deputy of Ireland

Chichester fought against the Spanish ARMADA and served in military expeditions. Knighted in 1597, he had command of a regiment in IRELAND and fought against insurgents as a provincial governor before he was appointed lord deputy in 1604. He was successful in weakening the loyalty of the native Irish to their leaders and promoting the settlement of Scottish Protestants in ULSTER. He advocated the translation of the prayer book into Irish. Replaced as deputy when he declined to resume the persecution of Catholics (1615), he was given the office of lord treasurer of Ireland (1616–25).

Child, Josiah (1630–1699) merchant, writer

Child sold supplies to the NAVY, later becoming mayor of Portsmouth and a MEMBER OF PARLIA- MENT. He was subsequently a director and governor of the EAST INDIA COMPANY. He wrote New Discourse on Trade (1663), which appeared in several editions. He argued for lower interest rates to stimulate trade and industry, and he was one of the exponents of MERCANTILISM.

Childers, Robert Erskine (1870–1922) civil servant, author

A clerk in the HOUSE OF COMMONS, Childers volunteered to fight in the BOER WAR and wrote two books about his experiences. His most famous book was a novel, The Riddle of the Sands (1903), which described the discovery of German invasion plans by two yachtsmen. He became involved in the Irish nationalist movement, even carrying guns to IRELAND in his yacht (1914). He served in the Irish delegation to the ANGLO-IRISH TREATY conference (1921), but later he went

over to the republican side, was captured, courtmartialed, and executed.

Chippendale, Thomas (1718–1779) cabinet maker

Chippendale established a business in London in the 1750s, designing furnishings for the gentry and for their servants. He published The Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker’s Director (1754), which was widely read and influenced styles in Europe and elsewhere. His work, particularly in mahogany, came to represent the major style of the mid-18th century.

chivalry

A code of behavior originating in the age of mounted knights, prescribing honor, loyalty, and courage. The code, which merged with ideals of the Christian church, was expressed in tournaments and in the creation of special orders, e.g., EDWARD III’s Order of the Garter in 1348.

Churchill, John See MARLBOROUGH, JOHN

CHURCHILL, DUKE OF.

Churchill, Lord Randolph Henry Spencer (1849–1895)

politician

The younger son of the seventh duke of Marlborough, Churchill entered PARLIAMENT in 1874. He was at the forefront of the Conservatives who advocated “Tory Democracy,” and he became the leader of the “Fourth Party” (1880–85), which sought to open the CONSERVATIVE PARTY to more local influence. He seemed to desert these causes when he joined Lord SALISBURY’s CABINET in 1885, first as secretary of state for INDIA, then as

CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER (1886). After a

few months, he made an ill-timed tactical resignation which was accepted by the prime minister, and he never served in government again. He was taken ill and died an early death.

Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard Spencer (1874–1965)

prime minister, 1940–1945, 1951–1955

Son of Randolph CHURCHILL and Jenny Jerome, an American heiress, Winston Churchill was schooled at Harrow and Sandhurst. He served in the army in INDIA and AFRICA and was a war correspondent in SOUTH AFRICA when he escaped from the Boers. He entered PARLIAMENT in 1900 as a member of the CONSERVATIVE PARTY, but he joined the LIBERAL PARTY in 1904 on the question of FREE TRADE. He rose quickly in the Liberal ranks, serving as president of the board of trade (1908), home secretary (1910), and first lord of the ADMIRALTY (1911). In that post, during WORLD WAR I he was responsible for the disastrous GALLIPOLI campaign (1915), upon which he resigned from the CABINET and went to serve with the army in France (1916). He was returned to office at the ministry of munitions (1917), then was secretary for war and air (1919), and later colonial secretary (1921).

After a two-year hiatus, he returned to Parliament in 1924, once again as a Conservative. He was brought into Stanley BALDWIN’s government

as CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER (1924–29), in

which post he returned GREAT BRITAIN to the gold standard (1925); took a strong position against the GENERAL STRIKE in 1926; and, in 1928, introduced the “ten year rule”—the reduction of armed services expenditures on the expectation that there would be no war for 10 years. This last policy was a measure of the general view of foreign affairs in the 1920s, a time when there was great hope for the LEAGUE OF NATIONS, some expectation of general DISARMA- MENT, and the lingering memory of WORLD WAR I and the onerous peace terms of the Treaty of VERSAILLES. Thus it was difficult for Churchill and others to raise the alarm over Nazi Germany’s intentions, even when Adolph Hitler came to power in 1933.

With the failure of APPEASEMENT and the outbreak of WORLD WAR II, Churchill was asked to return to the admiralty in 1939. In his old post he moved quickly to take the initiative, and he

launched a plan to invade Norway (to block Swedish iron-ore shipments to Germany), only to see it fail. But in this crisis, the blame was put on Prime Minister Neville CHAMBERLAIN, who resigned. Churchill replaced him as PRIME MINIS- TER just as Hitler launched his invasion of France in May 1940. Churchill was a gifted war leader who organized an all-party coalition; spurred the mobilization of society; and skillfully used radio and press coverage to inspire the people, especially in the wake of the evacuation of DUNKIRK and the fall of France. This was vital, because for over a year Britain was the sole target for Germany. The BLITZ and the Battle of the ATLANTIC against German U-boats were waged without the support of allies. The United States did produce LEND-LEASE and a gradual increase of submarine countermeasures. But it was the ROYAL AIR FORCE, the merchant NAVY, and the British fleet which bore the brunt of the assault. Churchill’s response was to look for ways to take the offensive: bombing raids on Germany, attacks in the Mediterranean, and sorties against German warships.

When Hitler invaded the Soviet Union (June 1941) and Japan bombed Pearl Harbor (December 1941), a powerful alliance was formed which rescued GREAT BRITAIN. The United States, Soviet Union, and Britain held a series of wartime conferences at which they drew up strategy and also made plans for a postwar settlement. Churchill found himself becoming the more junior partner in these meetings, as the power of Joseph Stalin and Franklin Roosevelt became clear. On the home front, Churchill was not ready to endorse radical policies such as those of the William BEVERIDGE report, and thus he was defeated in the 1945 election. He stubbornly held on to the leadership of the party. Age and circumstances made him less effective, though he did lead the Tories to victory in 1951. He retired from government in 1955.

Churchill was a highly successful writer throughout his long and eventful career. Indeed, that career provided most of his subject matter. His early works were accounts of adventure (The

Sir Winston Churchill (Library of Congress)

Malakand Field Force, 1898; The River War, 1899; London to Ladysmith via Pretoria, 1900). His history of World War I was The World Crisis (5 vols., 1923–31). He also wrote several autobiographical volumes (My Early Life, 1930; Thoughts and Adventures, 1932) and his major formal history,

Marlborough: His Life and Times (4 vols., 1934–38). His best-selling works were the autobiographical Second World War (6 vols., 1948–54) and his

imperialist overview, A History of the EnglishSpeaking Peoples (4 vols., 1956–58).

See also AIR RAIDS; RADAR; ULTRA SECRET.

Church of England

The church as reorganized under its supreme

head HENRY VIII in the ENGLISH REFORMATION. This

was first a restructuring of the government of the

church and later a revision of its creed and liturgy. When the king decided to procure his divorce from CATHERINE OF ARAGON, he feared losing the loyalty of the clergy. To prevent this, his servant Thomas CROMWELL conducted a systematic takeover of church authority by the Crown. The secular clergy had to join in a formal SUBMISSION to the king’s authority. This was completed before the declaration of ROYAL SUPREMACY (1534) gave a parliamentary endorsement to the change. Because of doubts concerning the allegiance of the monastic clergy (monks, friars, and nuns), their establishments were terminated by

DISSOLUTION.

The doctrine of the reformed church was settled by the THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES in 1563. This was the end result of efforts which began in the 1530s and were marked by frequent shifts and intermittent persecutions. At various dates, the observance of reformed doctrine was enjoined by acts of UNIFORMITY, applying the power of the state to enforce the observance of religion. The form and manner of worship was dictated by the

BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, which went through

occasional revision.

This structure still exists, but since the beginning of the 18th century its legal dominance has eroded. Dissenters and catholics, and non-Chris- tians somewhat later, have become accepted members of secular society. The established church still is headed by the monarch, who may not be of another faith. The BISHOPS of the church will retain seats in the HOUSE OF LORDS as long as it remains in its traditional form. But the Church of England now only claims about 2 percent of the population as regular communicants. On the other hand, the ANGLICAN communion— those churches outside ENGLAND which recognize the leadership of the ARCHBISHOP of CANTERBURY—has increased in size and formed ecumenical ties with other denominations.

Church of Ireland

In 1536 HENRY VIII ordered the rejection of Roman authority in IRELAND to parallel his

action in ENGLAND. But the strength of the old church was far greater in Ireland, and the gulf between the Anglo-Irish and the native community assured the continued influence of Catholicism in spite of state sanctions. Indeed, the association of new colonial efforts with Protestantism assured that many of the “Old English” would also adhere to the traditional faith. For centuries the Church of Ireland was the church of the ruling class and only a small fraction of the total population. In 1800 the Act

of UNION joined it to the CHURCH OF ENGLAND in

order to give it greater security, but in 1869 the Church of Ireland was disestablished.

Church of Scotland

The church in SCOTLAND had been relatively unaffected by English rulers since the 14th-century wars of independence. The entry of Protestantism had been delayed, but by 1560, in the political crisis revolving around MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS, there was a break from Roman authority. The distinctive feature in Scotland’s church (or kirk) was that at several stages there was powerful resistance to royal power which shaped the church’s history, first in 1560 against Mary, then in 1637–39 against CHARLES I, and then in 1689–90 against JAMES VII AND II. This resistance took the form of a PRESBYTERIAN system of church councils, in place of BISHOPs. Under the guidance of the GENERAL ASSEMBLY of the church, the Presbyterian doctrine and form of worship have been developed. This at times has been a turbulent process, and there have been major divisions in the church (1690, 1712, 1733, 1761, 1843) followed by a reunion of most of the Presbyterian denominations in 1929.

Cinque Ports

Five ports on the south coast of ENGLAND—Hast- ings, Romney, Hythe, Dover, Sandwich—which had special privileges from the Crown in return for providing ships to defend the coast and support cross-channel navigation. Their era of greatest importance was between the 11th and