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killed at Wakefield, and succeeded by his son, who became EDWARD IV.

most prominent figure associated with them, and his novels reflect some of their ideas.

Yorktown, Battle of (1781)

In the American Revolution, General CORNWAL- LIS had won victories in the southern colonies, returned to the Virginia coast, and fortified an encampment at Yorktown. There he was surrounded by an American army on land and a French fleet at sea. After heavy bombardment, lacking the relief he had expected from New York, Cornwallis surrendered to General George Washington, thus ending the American revolutionary war.

Young, Arthur (1741–1820) writer

Young was the premier publicist for improved 18th-century farming. He inherited a farm in 1763 and made a Six Weeks Tour through the Southern Counties of England and Wales (1768) in which he surveyed the practice of farmers and inaugurated a long career of agricultural reporting. His Annals of Agriculture began in 1784 and ran to 46 volumes. In 1793 he became the secretary to the newly formed Board of Agriculture. He also traveled in IRELAND and France and published journals of those tours.

Young England

A group of TORY aristocrats opposed to the leadership of Robert PEEL and critical of the new industrial and commercial classes. Their solution to social problems was to extol the paternal role of the aristocracy. Benjamin DISRAELI was the

Young Ireland

Irish middle-class intellectuals who were supporters of Daniel O’CONNELL’s repeal movement but inclined to more militant action. Charles Gavan Duffy (1816–1903) founded and edited the Nation (1842). He and other leaders broke away from the Repeal Association and staged a futile rebellion in 1848.

Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA)

A small group of tradesmen founded this association in 1844. Prayer meetings and BIBLE study were the early energizing force. Soon, with patronage from Lord SHAFTESBURY and others, the movement spread and established facilities across GREAT BRITAIN and around the world. The first YMCA world conference met in Paris in 1855. That same year the Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA) was founded, at first around a hostel for Florence NIGHTINGALE’s nurses, bound for the Crimea. The two groups were linked in 1877, and a world YWCA was organized in 1894.

Young Wales

A Welsh nationalist organization (Cymru Fydd = future Wales) was founded in 1886. It may have been inspired by YOUNG IRELAND, but it was a group less militant than the contemporary IRISH HOME RULE party there. In any case, it found very little support in WALES and did not survive the 19th century.

Zambia

A republic formerly called Northern RHODESIA. The British South Africa Company controlled the area until it became a PROTECTORATE in 1924. Zambia became part of the Central African Federation in 1953 (with Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland), but it gained independence in 1964.

Zanzibar

An island off the east coast of AFRICA, Zanzibar was made a British PROTECTORATE in 1890. Indirect rule was established in the 1920s, independence was granted in 1963, and a union with

TANGANYIKA formed TANZANIA in 1964.

zeppelins

These German airships were used to attack British targets beginning in 1915. They were erratic, but in 51 raids they killed over 500 people. British defenders managed to shoot down 23 zeppelins, or more than a fourth of the total fleet.

Zimbabwe See RHODESIA.

Zinoviev letter

A letter allegedly from Grigori Zinoviev, president of the Communist International, to the British Communist Party, urging them to conduct subversive activity. Released to the press in October 1924, on the eve of a general election, it may have been a forgery or a genuine letter leaked by the intelligence services. In any event,

it was presumably aimed at scaring voters into opposing the LABOUR PARTY, which had just completed its first few months in office as a minority government, during which time one of its acts had been to grant diplomatic recognition to the Soviet Union. There is disagreement among scholars as to whether the letter did in fact have a significant impact on the election. The CON- SERVATIVE PARTY won a majority, but at the expense of the LIBERAL PARTY. Labour actually gained a million votes over its tally in the previous election.

Zionism

Nationalist movement among Jews, aimed at restoring a Jewish state in PALESTINE. An idea present in some form in the Jewish communities of the diaspora for centuries, Zionism was expressed vividly in a world Zionist Conference at Basel in 1897. Theodor Herzl organized the group, and its activity helped to bring about the

BALFOUR DECLARATION in 1917. After WORLD WAR

II there was an irresistible sentiment to grant this wish, and when the British government withdrew from Palestine, the state of Israel was established in 1948.

Zulu

The natives of the colony of NATAL, they were known as fierce warriors. The Zulu were provoked into a war in 1879, in which they won the first battles but were eventually overwhelmed. Their territory was divided into districts and absorbed into the colonies of the British and the Boers.

1348

The “Black Death” (bubonic plague) first strikes England; mortality as high as 50 percent in some areas. Plague returns four times before 1400.

1351

Statute of Laborers attempts to freeze wages.

1352

Statute of Treason defines the offense as direct attack on the king.

1360

Treaty of Brétigny ends first phase of the Hundred Years’ War.

1369

French renew warfare with raids on the channel coast of England.

1371

David II of Scotland dies; succeeded by Robert II.

1376

The “Good Parliament” meets; first impeachment in English history.

1377

Parliament passes the first poll tax. Edward III dies, Richard II becomes king.

1381

Further poll taxes (1379 and 1380) produce poor returns, and resentment explodes in the Peasants’ Revolt (June).

1382

John Wycliffe’s works are condemned; the statute de heretico comburendo provides for burning of Lollard heretics.

1388

The “Merciless Parliament” impeaches Richard II’s favorites for high treason.

1390

Robert II of Scotland dies, succeeded by Robert III.

1397

Richard II assumes absolute power; he annuls all acts of the Merciless Parliament.

1399

Richard banishes Henry Bolingbroke and seizes his estates (February). Henry returns to England (July), captures the king (August), and takes the throne himself (October) as Henry IV.

1400

Rebellion of Owen Glendower.

1403

Rebellion of the Percies; they ally with Glendower, and he is aided by some Scots and the French.

1405

Rebel forces are defeated by Prince Henry, who becomes a dominant figure in English government.

1406

James of Scotland is taken prisoner by the English, remains in captivity when he succeeds to the throne after the death of Robert III.

1408

Northumberland’s third rebellion against Henry IV.

1410

End of Glendower’s rebellion.

1413

Henry IV dies; Henry V succeeds to the throne.

1414

Revolt of Lollards fails; 40 are executed.

1415

Henry V renews the Hundred Years’ War; invades France (August), captures the port of Harfleur (September), and wins the Battle of Agincourt (October).

1420

Treaty of Troyes: King Charles recognizes Henry V’s claim to the French throne (April); Henry marries Catherine of Valois, daughter of the French king (June).

1422

Henry V dies during the siege of Vincennes (August); his infant son Henry VI becomes king.

1424

James I of Scotland is freed from English captivity.

1429

French recovery begins, led by Joan of Arc (April). The Dauphin is crowned Charles VII (July).

1430

Joan of Arc captured.

Henry VI goes to France for his coronation there.

1431

Joan of Arc burnt as a witch by the English (May). Henry is crowned in Paris.

1436

French army takes Paris.

1437

James I of Scotland is murdered, succeeded by James II (February).

Henry VI is declared of age (November).

1442

The French continue to recover power in Normandy.

1445

Henry VI marries Margaret of Anjou, and there is a two-year truce.

1449

The French recapture Normandy.

1450

Cade’s Rebellion, triggered by losses in France and suspicion of treacherous royal advisers; rebels take London, disperse after the grant of pardons; further French victories in Normandy and Guienne.

1453

French take Gascony, English withdraw from all but the port of Calais, ending the Hundred Years’ War.

The king’s son Edward is born (October).

1454

Henry VI has mental collapse; duke of York named protector (March); Henry recovers (December).

1455

York dismissed as protector (February).

First Battle of St. Albans (May) sees capture of the king, and the Wars of the Roses begin.

1459

Queen Margaret raises troops; acts of attainder passed against Yorkists; after defeats, the Yorkists flee to Wales, Ireland, and Calais.

1460

Battle of Northampton; Henry VI captured by the Yorkists (July); duke of York returns to England, claims the throne, to succeed Henry VI.

James II of Scotland dies, succeeded by James III.

1461

Queen Margaret leads Lancastrian forces to victory at second Battle of St. Albans, releases Henry VI from captivity (February), but he is deposed and replaced by Edward, earl of March, as Edward IV. This is confirmed by the Yorkist victory at Towton (March).

1465

Henry VI is captured by Edward IV, kept prisoner until 1470.

1468

Norway surrenders Orkneys to Scotland.

1469

Rebellion against Edward IV; earl of Warwick captures the king, but they are reconciled.

1470

Edward challenges Warwick and the duke of Clarence; they flee to France and unite with Queen Margaret (May). The Lancastrians return to England and overthrow Edward (September) and restore Henry VI (October).

1471

Edward returns to England (March), deposes Henry VI (April), and defeats the rebels at the Battle of Barnet, where Warwick is killed. At the Battle of Tewkesbury (May), the Lancastrians are crushed, the son of Henry VI is killed, and later the old king is murdered in the Tower.

1475

Edward allies with Burgundy and invades France. A treaty is signed giving Edward a yearly pension (August).

1477

William Caxton publishes the first book printed in England (The Sayings of the Philosophers).

1478

The duke of Clarence is attainted for treason, later murdered secretly in the Tower of London.

1483

Edward IV dies, succeeded by his young son, Edward V. Richard, duke of Gloucester, takes custody of the new king, and is recognized as protector (May). The king and his younger brother are imprisoned in the Tower (June),

and after the king is deposed, Gloucester takes the throne as Richard III. The two brothers are presumably murdered in the Tower (August).

1485

Henry Tudor lands in Wales.

At the Battle of Bosworth (August), Richard III is killed and his army defeated.

Coronation of Henry VII (October).

1486

Henry VII marries Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV, uniting the Yorkist and Lancastrian lines.

1487

The pretender, Lambert Simnel, and his supporters are beaten at the Battle of Stoke.

1488

James III is defeated at the Battle of Sauchieburn, then murdered by his son and successor, James IV.

1489

Treaty of Medina del Campo between Henry VII and Ferdinand of Aragon.

1494

Poynings’ Law enacted in Ireland, named after the king’s deputy, Sir Edward Poynings. The Irish Parliament shall not meet or adopt legislation without English consent.

1497

Cornish rebellion; march on London in reaction to taxes levied for war with Scotland; rebels beaten and leaders executed.

The pretender Perkin Warbeck lands in Cornwall, is captured later but escapes in 1498.

1499

Warbeck recaptured and executed.

1501

Arthur, Prince of Wales, is married to Catherine of Aragon (November).

1502

James IV of Scotland marries Margaret, daughter of Henry VII.

Arthur, Prince of Wales, dies (April).

1505

Merchant Adventurers Company receives charter from Henry VII giving it a monopoly of cloth export to northern Europe.

1509

Henry VII dies and is succeeded by Henry VIII (April); the new king marries Catherine of Aragon (June).

1510

Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley, hated tax collectors for Henry VII, are charged with treason and executed.

1513

Henry VIII invades France; Scotland allies with France and invades England.

King James IV is killed at the Battle of Flodden and is succeeded by his infant son James V.

1514

Louis XII of France marries Mary Tudor, the king’s sister.

1515

Thomas Wolsey made lord chancellor and cardinal.

1518

Wolsey negotiates the Treaty of London, involving England and the major powers of Europe.

1520

The “Field of the Cloth of Gold” meeting between Henry VIII and Francis I of France, where for two weeks the rivals hold jousts in ornate settings while affirming their alliance.

1521

Lutheran books are burned in London.

Henry VIII writes The Defence of the Seven Sacraments and is awarded the title “Defender of the Faith” by Pope Leo X.

1522

England goes to war with Scotland and France.

1525

William Tyndale publishes the New Testament in English at Worms. It is publicly burnt in St. Paul’s Cathedral in 1526.

1527

Henry VIII appeals to the pope for annulment of his marriage to Catherine.

1529

The “Reformation” Parliament is summoned; complaints against clergy are aired in the House of Commons.

Wolsey loses property and positions, having failed to obtain the royal divorce.

1530

Wolsey is arrested and dies before his trial.

1531

Thomas Cromwell becomes a member of the privy council.

The clergy submit to the king, acknowledging his supreme authority.

1532

Act of Annates seizes revenues normally paid to Rome.

Anne Boleyn involved with the king. Sir Thomas More resigns as chancellor.

1533

Act in Restraint of Appeals forbids legal appeal to Rome, formulates the king’s constitutional position.

Henry VIII secretly marries Anne Boleyn (January), announces the annulment of his marriage to Catherine, declares his marriage to

Anne valid, she is crowned (May), and Princess Elizabeth is born (September).

1534

Act of Succession states that heirs of Henry and Anne Boleyn will succeed to the throne, and any who oppose the law are traitors.

Act of Supremacy formally recognizes the king’s full power over the Church of England.

1535

Thomas Cromwell initiates the valor ecclesiasticus, a visitation of all monastic houses to assess their property and their performance.

Execution of Sir Thomas More and Bishop John Fisher for refusing to take the oath of succession (June).

1536

Dissolution of monasteries with incomes below £200. There is widespread public resistance, especially the Pilgrimage of Grace in northern England. The government subdues the revolt, executes its leaders, and creates a Council of the North to increase the king’s authority there.

Anne Boleyn accused of treason and executed; her marriage is declared invalid. Henry VIII marries Jane Seymour 11 days after the execution.

Act of Union with Wales states in principle that the laws and government of Wales shall be the same as England. English law is to be followed, and five new shires are added to those of the principality, each to be represented in Parliament.

1537

The bible translation of Miles Coverdale is licensed by the Crown.

Jane Seymour dies, having given birth to a son, Edward.

1538

Thomas Cromwell issues injunctions to clergy to keep registers of baptisms, weddings, and burials for each parish.

1539

Dissolution of remaining monasteries.

Six articles: points of Catholic doctrine considered essential are established in an effort to retard the spread of Protestantism.

1540

Henry VIII marries Anne of Cleves (January) but the marriage is soon annulled (July) and Thomas Cromwell is attainted and executed.

Henry marries Catherine Howard (August).

1541

Henry VIII claims title of king of Ireland.

1542

Battle of Solway Moss. English raid is countered by a Scottish invasion, but a much smaller English force routs the invaders.

King James V dies after the birth of his daughter, Mary, Queen of Scots.

1543

Treaty of Greenwich signed, providing for marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots, and Prince Edward. The Scottish parliament repudiates the treaty and affirms the French alliance.

Henry VIII marries Catherine Parr.

1544

England invades France, and war resumes with Scotland.

Edinburgh is attacked and burned.

1546

Peace of Ardres ends fighting between England and France.

Murder of Cardinal Beaton at St. Andrews.

1547

Henry VIII dies and is succeeded by Edward VI. A regency council is meant to rule on his behalf, but Edward Seymour, the king’s uncle, assumes the title Lord Protector and duke of Somerset.

Fighting in Scotland; the English win the Battle of Pinkie and capture Edinburgh.

1549

The first Book of Common Prayer is adopted, part of a growing Protestant reform campaign.

Kett’s rebellion, a protest over economic grievances like enclosure of land, is beaten by royal forces and leaders are executed.

Somerset is removed as protector and imprisoned; John Dudley, earl of Warwick (later duke of Northumberland) becomes the new protector.

1552

The second Book of Common Prayer further advances the Protestant reform.

1553

The 42 Articles of religion drafted by Thomas Cranmer are published. Edward VI dies. Lady Jane Grey is proclaimed queen by the late king’s will, but Mary Tudor eludes capture and raises forces to march on London. Lady Jane is deposed and Mary becomes queen. Mary repeals acts of Protestant reform and restores much of the traditional church.

1554

Wyatt’s rebellion, triggered by Mary’s plan to marry Philip of Spain. Thomas Wyatt captured and executed. Princess Elizabeth, suspected of involvement, is imprisoned in the Tower of London.

The pope is recognized as head of the English church.

1555

Trials of protestants for heresy. Leading protestants burned at the stake include Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Ridley.

1556

Thomas Cranmer is burnt at the stake.

1558

Mary dies and is succeeded by Elizabeth I.

1559

Elizabeth’s church settlement includes restoration of the prayer book, the vernacular Bible, and closing of the monastic houses restored by Mary. Elizabeth becomes “supreme governor” of the church under a new Act of Supremacy.

Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis brings peace between England and France.

1560

Lords of the Congregation in Scotland lead a popular reformation movement.

Treaty of Berwick is agreed between Elizabeth and Scottish reformers.

Treaty of Edinburgh between England, France, and Scotland arranges withdrawal of French troops and promises English noninterference.

1561

Mary, Queen of Scots, returns to Scotland after the death of her husband, Francis II of France.

The Book of Discipline, composed by John Knox, sets up a new church constitution in Scotland.

1562

Shane O’Neill comes to London, submits to Elizabeth.

Tyrone’s rebellion in Ireland.

John Hawkins enters the slave trade.

1563

Thirty-nine Articles of religion adopted. Statute of Apprentices gives justices of the peace

power to set wages.

John Foxe’s Acts and Monuments (alias Book of Martyrs) published.

1564

Peace of Troyes ends fighting between England and France.

1565

Tobacco introduced.

Royal College of Physicians allowed to conduct dissections of humans.