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Microcontroller Based

Applied Digital Control

Microcontroller Based Applied Digital Control D. Ibrahim

C 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-470-86335-8

Microcontroller Based

Applied Digital Control

Dogan Ibrahim

Department of Computer Engineering

Near East University, Cyprus

West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ibrahim, Dogan.

Microcontroller based applied digital control / Dogan Ibrahim. p. cm.

ISBN 0-470-86335-8

1.Process control—Data processing. 2. Digital control systems—Design and construction. 3. Microprocessors. I. Title.

TS156.8.I126 2006
629.8 9—dc22		2005030149
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN-13	978-0-470-86335-0 (HB)
ISBN-10	0-470-86335-8 (HB)

Typeset in 10/12pt Times by TechBooks, New Delhi, India

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire

This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry in which at least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production.

Contents

Preface				xi
1	Introduction			1
	1.1	The Idea of System Control		1
	1.2	Computer in the Loop		2
	1.3	Centralized and Distributed Control Systems		5
	1.4	Scada Systems		6
	1.5	Hardware Requirements for Computer Control		7
		1.5.1	General Purpose Computers	7
		1.5.2	Microcontrollers	8
	1.6	Software Requirements for Computer Control		9
		1.6.1	Polling	11
		1.6.2 Using External Interrupts for Timing		11
		1.6.3	Using Timer Interrupts	12
		1.6.4	Ballast Coding	12
		1.6.5 Using an External Real-Time Clock		13
	1.7	Sensors Used in Computer Control		14
		1.7.1	Temperature Sensors	15
		1.7.2	Position Sensors	17
		1.7.3 Velocity and Acceleration Sensors		20
		1.7.4	Force Sensors	21
		1.7.5	Pressure Sensors	21
		1.7.6	Liquid Sensors	22
		1.7.7	Air Flow Sensors	23
	1.8	Exercises		24
		Further Reading		25
2	System Modelling			27
	2.1	Mechanical Systems		27
		2.1.1	Translational Mechanical Systems	28
		2.1.2	Rotational Mechanical Systems	32

vi	CONTENTS
2.2	Electrical Systems		37
2.3	Electromechanical Systems		42
2.4	Fluid Systems		44
	2.4.1	Hydraulic Systems	44
2.5	Thermal Systems		49
2.6	Exercises		52
	Further Reading		52
3 The PIC Microcontroller			57
3.1	The PIC Microcontroller Family		57
	3.1.1	The 10FXXX Family	58
	3.1.2	The 12CXXX/PIC12FXXX Family	59
	3.1.3	The 16C5X Family	59
	3.1.4	The 16CXXX Family	59
	3.1.5	The 17CXXX Family	60
	3.1.6	The PIC18CXXX Family	60
3.2	Minimum PIC Conﬁguration		61
	3.2.1	External Oscillator	63
	3.2.2	Crystal Operation	63
	3.2.3	Resonator Operation	63
	3.2.4	RC Operation	65
	3.2.5	Internal Clock	65
3.3	Some Popular PIC Microcontrollers		66
	3.3.1	PIC16F84 Microcontroller	67
	3.3.2	PIC16F877 Microcontroller	71
3.4	Exercises		75
	Further Reading		76
4 Programming PIC Microcontrollers in C			77
4.1	PICC Lite Variable Types		78
	4.1.1	Bit	78
	4.1.2	Unsigned Char	78
	4.1.3	Signed Char	79
	4.1.4	Unsigned Int	79
	4.1.5	Signed Int	79
	4.1.6	Long	79
	4.1.7	Unsigned Long	79
	4.1.8	Float	80
	4.1.9	Double	80
4.2	Variables		80
4.3	Comments in Programs		81
4.4	Storing Variables in the Program Memory		82
4.5	Static Variables		82
4.6	Volatile Variables		83
4.7	Persistent Variables		83

		CONTENTS	vii
4.8	Absolute Address Variables		83
4.9	Bank1 Qualiﬁer		83
4.10	Arrays		84
4.11	ASCII Constants		86
4.12	Arithmetic and Logic Operators		86
4.13	Number Bases		89
4.14	Structures		89
4.15	Program Flow Control		91
	4.15.1	If–Else Statement	91
	4.15.2	Switch–Case Statement	92
	4.15.3	For Statement	94
	4.15.4	While Statement	95
	4.15.5	Do Statement	95
	4.15.6	Break Statement	96
	4.15.7	Continue Statement	96
4.16	Functions in C		96
	4.16.1	User Functions	97
	4.16.2	Built-in Functions	98
4.17	Pointers in C		99
4.18	Pre-processor Commands		101
	4.18.1	#deﬁne	101
	4.18.2	#include	103
	4.18.3	#asm and #endasm	103
4.19	Accessing the EEPROM Memory		104
4.20	Interupts in C Programs		104
4.21	Delays in C Programs		105
4.22	Structure of a C Program		105
4.23	PIC Microcontroller Input–Output Interface		107
	4.23.1	Connecting an LED	107
	4.23.2 Connecting a Push-Button Switch		109
	4.23.3	Connecting an LCD	111
4.24	Exercises		116
	Further Reading		117
5 Microcontroller Project Development			119
5.1	Hardware and Software Requirements		119
5.2	Program Development Tools		120
	5.2.1	Flow Charts	121
	5.2.2	Structure Charts	121
	5.2.3	Pseudocode	123
5.3	Exercise		129
	Further Reading		129
6 Sampled Data Systems and the z-Transform			131
6.1	The Sampling Process		131
6.2	The z-Transform		136

viii		CONTENTS
		6.2.1	Unit Step Function	137
		6.2.2	Unit Ramp Function	137
		6.2.3	Exponential Function	138
		6.2.4	General Exponential Function	138
		6.2.5	Sine Function	139
		6.2.6	Cosine Function	139
		6.2.7	Discrete Impulse Function	140
		6.2.8	Delayed Discrete Impulse Function	140
		6.2.9	Tables of z-Transforms	140
		6.2.10	The z-Transform of a Function Expressed as a Laplace Transform	140
		6.2.11	Properties of z-Transforms	143
		6.2.12	Inverse z-Transforms	145
	6.3	Pulse Transfer Function and Manipulation of Block Diagrams		154
		6.3.1	Open-Loop Systems	154
		6.3.2	Open-Loop Time Response	156
		6.3.3	Closed-Loop Systems	162
		6.3.4	Closed-Loop Time Response	166
	6.4	Exercises		166
		Further Reading		169
7 System Time Response Characteristics				171
	7.1	Time Response Comparison		171
	7.2	Time Domain Speciﬁcations		174
	7.3	Mapping the s-Plane into the z-Plane		177
	7.4	Damping Ratio and Undamped Natural Frequency in the z-Plane		178
		7.4.1	Damping Ratio	178
		7.4.2	Undamped Natural Frequency	179
	7.5	Damping Ratio and Undamped Natural Frequency Using Formulae		181
	7.6	Exercises		183
		Further Reading		184
8	System Stability			187
	8.1	Factorizing the Characteristic Equation		187
	8.2	Jury’s Stability Test		189
	8.3	Routh–Hurwitz Criterion		192
	8.4	Root Locus		194
	8.5	Nyquist Criterion		201
	8.6	Bode Diagrams		205
	8.7	Exercises		208
		Further Reading		211
9	Discrete Controller Design			213
	9.1	Digital Controllers		214
		9.1.1	Dead-Beat Controller	215
		9.1.2	Dahlin Controller	217

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