Файл: Промышленное и гражданское строительство.docx

Минобрнауки России

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высшего образования

«Тульский государственный университет»

Интернет-институт ТулГУ

Кафедра иностранных языков

Контрольная работа №

по дисциплине «Иностранный язык (английский язык)»

на тему «Промышленное и гражданское строительство»

Выполнил: Мандрыкина Наталья Алексеевна

ИБ360821-н,

Промышленное и гражданское строительство

Проверил: ФИО

ученая степень, звание, должность

Тула – … год

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City Engineering
The engineer dealing with town planning and construction is confronted with a great variety of engineering problems. A rail­way engineer must know principally about railways; an electri­cal engineer must know about lightning, heating and power, a sanitary engineer must know water purification and about sewerage; but a city engineer should know about these and many other branches of engineering. Certain principles of city planning are now generally accepted and every town should have a com­prehensible plan comprising all information concerning streets, parks and public buildings; all public services, such as transpor­tation, lighting, heating and water supply; distribution of popu­lation and industries; the housing of people, sizes and type of houses, size of yards, distances to parks and so on. All this comes within the scope of activities of a city engineer.
Heating, Ventilation and Gas Supply
The engineers of this speciality work on construction sites at enterprises and at various research and designing institutes. They design, calculate and construct heating, ventilating and air con­ditioning systems for apartment houses and office buildings, as well as for industrial enterprises, In case of need they make re­pairs of separate parts and whole systems.

The purpose of heating, ventilating and air-conditioning sy­stems is to create comfort conditions, the environment inside the premises which is characterized by four principal factors: tempe­rature, humidity, air purity, and velocity and air motion. Heating provides the necessary temperature while ventilating is respon­sible for the rest.

Heating. In order to maintain standard room temperature, the heating apparatus must supply heat to replace the lost through the walls, floors, and ceilings, and, in addition, the heat neces­sary to warm the cold fresh air used for ventilation. Heat is lost by conduction through walls, floors and ceilings, and by diffusion through cracks around doors, windows, etc.

System of Heating. Leaving stoves and fireplaces out of consideration, the systems ordinarily employed for heating may be classified as follows:

a) Hot air.

b) Steam.

c) Hot water.

Hot Air Systems. In a hot air system, heated air from the furnace is introduced through leaders, stacks, and registers into the room. This air is at a higher temperature than the room, and, flowing across the ceilings and down by the walls, heat abstracted until it is eventually cooled to the desired room temperature. Fresh warm air from the furnace then forces the air that been cooled to room temperature out of the room through cracks, fireplaces etc. A heat balance may therefore be written a follows: the heat given up by the entering air equals the heat lost by conduction.

The force which causes hot air to flow from furnace to room results from the difference in densities of the cold air outside and the warm air inside the furnace and pipes.

Advantages. A hot air heating system is cheap to install, has a low cost of maintenance, and is not hard to manage. Its opera­ting cost it little, if any, greater than that of hot water or system of equal capacity.

Steam and Hot Water Systems

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. A steam or a hot water heating plant consists essentially of the radiators, the boiler, and the system of piping connecting the former with the latter. Steam, orhot water, from the boiler is circulated through the piping and radiators; in these the steam condenses giving up its latent heat and the water gives up some of its heat, thus warming the rooms. In the usual hot water installation, the boiler, pipes, and radia­tors are kept full of water at all times, an expansion tank being provided to compensate for the increase in volume of water heated and to prevent explosions in case of generation of too much steam.

System of Piping. For steam heating the system of piping usually employed are the ordinary one-pipe system and the two-pipe system. In the former, but one connection is made to radiator, this connection serving both as an inlet for the steam and as an outlet for the water of condensation. Inthe latter, there is a supply pipe and a return pipe for each radiator, system is expensive and not used generally in steam heating except for indirect radiators which must always have two connections in order to function properly.

In hot water heating, although one-pipe systems may be used, it is considered the best practice to have a supply pipe and turn pipe for each radiator

In selecting a heating plant for residences there must be considered the size, the type of building, the climate, the first cost and the cost of operation.

Ventilating Methods. Natural ventilation includes all ventilationwithout positive means for admission and escape of air. In buildings of ordinary construction, any room will rece­ive some ventilation whenever its temperature is above or below that of the surrounding air, by the leakage around the doors, win­dows, etc. In a room heated by an ordinary stove it is found that the air will be changed from one to three times an hour, even when no air is purposely admitted for ventilation.

Systematic ventilation is necessary in public buildings in which people congregate, such as schools, cinemas, theaters, etc. and provision must be made for the admission and escape of the air through flues or definite openings and for power for moving air. The air may be moved by expansion due to heat or by fans. The latter method is the one most used since it affords ventila­tion in summer as well as winter. Ventilation by fans may be ac­complished by forcing the air into a room or exhausting air from it.

Air Conditioning

The term air conditioning in its broadest sense means control of any or all the physical or chemical qualities of the air within a structure. More particularly, it includes the simultaneous control of temperature, humidity, purity of the air (dust, bacteria, odors, toxic gases, ionization) most of these factors affect in greater or lesser degrees human health or comfort. The term is broad enough to embrace what­ever other additional factors may be found desirable for maintain­ing the atmosphere of occupied spaces at a condition best suited to the physiological requirements of the human body.

Water-Supply and Sewage Disposal

None of you has probably ever thought about what is the most important item in the life of any town. Some think it is the trans­port, the others — electricity, still others may say something else and only very few will mention water-supply and sewage dispo­sal. That is quite understandable, for all the water-supply and sewage systems are hidden underground.

Conduits like arteries and blood vessels in the human orga­nism are located underground together with other communica­tions. Hundreds of thousands of cubic metres of water pass along the conduits (pipe lines).

In towns water is consumed for domestic and sanitary purpos­es as well as for, fire protection. In industrial enterprises great quantities of water are needed for technological purposes. The amount of water needed for a big consumer like a metallurgical combine is several times greater than that for a big town with a population of 1,5 mln people. Special recirculating systems are to be constructed for such enterprises as their water demand exceeds the debit of the water sources available.

There is not a single branch of the national economy that could do without water of some quality in a certain amount.

The modern water-supply and sewage disposal are a complicated system comprising all kinds of engineering structures used, for industrial and domestic purposes as well as for drainage, purification and disposal of sewage.

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If we follow the flow of water through all the water supply and sewage works we shall first come to an area where the in­takes, pumping stations, purifying equipment and various reser­voirs are located. Even the temporary presence of strangers in this zone is prohibited, nor any construction is allowed that is not directly connected with water supply.

By means of powerful pumps water is taken from the source of supply be it a river, a lake or a well. It is chlorinated to dest­roy all the disease producing (pathogenic) organisms which may be present in the untreated water.

The water flows to the settling base where all the matter in suspension is removed. From the setting basins water goes to filters for a more thorough purification.

Having reached the town, the water enters house connections and is fed to various household appliances such as sinks, baths, showers, lavatories, wash-stands and so on.

After usage water enters the drainage system, goes to the sewage collector and afterwards is subjected to biological treat­ment in special sewage treatment works.

Sewage first passes through screens where coarse impurities are detained. Next it is stored in precipitators of horizontal (late­ral), vertical or of radial type.

If the degree of purification is sufficient the sewage is disinfected by means of lime and discharged into some water basin.

If further purification is needed the sewage is directed to biological filters for decomposition of organic impurities. Then the effluent is again allowed to settle. And only after that the purified and disinfected sewage may be discharged into some stream or body of water. But we shall not dwell on that here.

Suffice it to say that the problem of water supply for towns and enterprises and its disposal after utilization (and purifica­tion) is one of the most important problems which are of greatest economic significance.

The Modern City as a Symbol of Modern Man

The modern city has still to be built, and the first step toward sinking its foundations into the earth is to raise its ideal structure in the mind. It is obvious that the "modern city" cannot be created by mechanical improvements, es­pecially if it is conceived in the childish terms used in the 1920's by various American skyscraper architects in por­traying super-skyscraper cities lived in largely under artifi­cial light, zoned in horizontal layers according to incomes and utilizing every mechanical device. Even Le Corbusier's refinement of this picture-with wide green spaces, trees, sunlight, and sport-fields—though plainly more human, is still naive, for it neglects the essentials of family life and neighborly intercourse.

The architectural embodiment of the modern city is in fact impossible until biological, social, and personal needs have been canvassed, until the cultural and educational purposes of the city have been outlined, and until all of man's activities have been integrated into a balanced whole. One cannot base an architectural conception on such a sociology as that which led a group of modern architects and planners to examine the modern city with reference to only four func­tions: work, transportation, dwelling, and recreation. The city, if it is anything, is an expression and symbolization of man.

Conceivably a city could be built underground, or it might be enclosed within a single massive air-conditioned skyscraper with no window opening to the outer world. Pro­posals were current for both types. But one important ele­ment would be lacking in such a city-the aesthetic sym­bolization of its contents, its activity, its meaning. Above all, the city is a symbol of social relationships. In cities not only do the social functions exist, they signify. Architecture and city planning are the visible translations of the total meaning of a culture. Each generation writes its biography in the buildings it creates; each culture characterizes in the city the unifying idea that runs through its activities. The medieval city says: "protection under the eye of God"; the Baroque city says: "power under the favor of the Prince"; the industrial city says: "production no matter what the human cost"; the American metropolis says: "finance must dominate", in the ideal form of the modern city one must look for a fuller embodiment of needs than any recent cul­ture has produced.

The physical problems of planning and the question of architectural form are closely connected with the more fundamental concerns of the relation of population to in­dustry and to the land, the possibilities of creating a new rural-urban pattern, and a reinterpretation of human needs in terms of twentieth-century political and technical possi­bilities. No ideal plan can do justice to the potential nature of modern man if it does not further the interaction of the urban and the rural patterns of life bringing gardens, parks and recreation spaces into the heart of the city and making available for the most isolated country dweller the fullest resources of culture and education.

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Городское проектирование

Инженер, занимающийся градостроительством и сооружением, сталкивается с самыми разнообразными проблемами в проектировании. Инженер путей сообщения должен знать главным образом о железных дорогах; инженер-электрик должен знать об освещении, отоплении и питании, инженер-сантехник должен знать об очистке воды и о канализации; но инженер-градостроитель должен знать об этих и многих других отраслях строительства. Некоторые принципы городского планирования в настоящее время являются общепринятыми, и каждый город должен иметь доступный план, включающий всю информацию, касающуюся улиц, парков и общественных зданий; всех коммунальных услуг, таких, как транспорт, освещение, отопление и водоснабжение; размещения населения и отраслей промышленности; жилищных условий людей, размеров и типов домов, размеров дворов, расстояния до парков и так далее. Все это входит в сферу деятельности инженера-градостроителя.
Отопление, вентиляция и газоснабжение
Инженеры этой специальности работают на строительных объектах предприятий и в различных научно-исследовательских и проектных институтах. Проектируют, рассчитывают и строят системы отопления, вентиляции и кондиционирования для многоквартирных домов и офисных зданий, а также для промышленных предприятий.

Целью систем отопления, вентиляции и кондиционирования воздуха является создание комфортных условий, окружающей среды внутри помещений, которая характеризуется четырьмя основными факторами: температурой, влажностью, чистотой воздуха, скоростью и движением воздуха. Отопление обеспечивает необходимую температуру, а вентиляция отвечает за остальное.

Отопление. Для поддержания стандартной комнатной температуры, отопительный прибор должен подавать тепло, чтобы компенсировать ушедшее через стены, полы и потолки, и, кроме того, отопление необходимо, чтобы прогреть холодный свежий воздух, используемый для вентиляции. Нагрев теряется путем проводимости через стены, полы и потолки, а также при рассеивании сквозь трещины вокруг дверей, окон и т.д.

Система отопления. Не рассматривая печи и камины, системы, обычно используемые для отопления, можно классифицировать следующим образом:

а) Воздушные.

б) Паровые.

в) Водяные.

Системы воздушного отопления. В системе воздушного отопления нагретый воздух из теплогенератора вводится через каналы, накапливается и остается в помещении. Этот воздух,

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нагретый до температуры более высокой, чем температура воздуха в помещении, циркулирует возле потолка и вниз вдоль стен, пока не охладится до комнатной температуры. Свежий теплый воздух из теплогенератора затем вытесняет охлажденный до комнатной температуры воздух из помещения через трещины, камины и т.д. Таким образом, тепловой баланс можно описать следующим образом: тепло, отданное входящим воздухом, равно теплу, теряемому при проводимости.

Сила, которая заставляет горячий воздух течь из теплогенератора в помещение, является результатом разницы в плотности холодного воздуха снаружи и теплого воздуха внутри теплогенератора и труб.

Преимущества. Система отопления горячим воздухом является дешевой в установке, имеет низкую стоимость обслуживания и не является сложной в управлении. Расходы на ее эксплуатацию небольшие, но если они будут, то выше чем у системы водяного отопления или системы такой же мощности.

Системы парового и водяного отопления. Паровая или водонагревательная установка состоит по существу из батарей, котла и системы трубопроводов, соединяющих первых с последним. Пар или горячая вода из котла циркулирует через трубопроводы и батареи; в них пар конденсируется, отбрасывая скрытое тепло, и вода отдает часть тепла, нагревая таким образом помещения. В обычной водяной установке котел, трубы и батареи постоянно заполняются водой, при этом предусмотрен расширительный бак для компенсации увеличения объема нагретой воды и предотвращения взрывов в случае образования слишком большого количества пара.

Система трубопроводов. Для системы парового отопления используют обычную однотрубную систему и двухтрубную систему. В первом случае к радиатору подводится только одно соединение, которое служит как входом для пара, так и выходом для водяного конденсата. Во втором случае имеется впускная труба и возвратная труба для каждой батареи. Система дорогостоящая и обычно не используется в паровом отоплении, за исключением конвекторных радиаторов, которые всегда должны иметь два соединения для правильной работы.

При водяном отоплении, могут использоваться и однотрубные системы, но наилучшей практикой считается, когда есть впускная труба и возвратная труба для каждой батареи.

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