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Culture and traditions of writing
Kazakh oral art- includes over 50 various genres and genre variations: wedding rite songs: zhar-zhar- opens the wedding ceremony, betashar- bride’s face opening, sunsy (brides’ weeping), toi bastar (wedding feast opening); - death rite songs - qoshtasy (farewell songs), estirty (news on death), konil aity (expressing condolences in general way), arbau (spellings from shamanistic rituals), duga (spellings with Islamic meaning), baqsy saryny (shamanistic incantation); wish songs (bata- good wishes), zharapazan ( spring songs performed during the holy month of Ramadan); heroic epic, historical songs (dastans and qissa); songs performed during the poetical contests - aitys: bodik aitys, aityses of girls and young man, konil aity, zhybaty- compassion songs in tragic situations; age songs – for math skills - counting, for logic and memory skills – taqpak; seasonal. Since Russian and soviet times were introduced new genres: social-professional; social-political (prisoners, protesters); regional variety (south, east, west, and north).
Kazakh literature is the literature created in the modern state of Kazakhstan, the Kazakh SSR, the Kazakh part of the Russian empire, Kazakh khanate, and lands and peoples that made up Kazakh ehtnicity. There is some overlap with several complementary themes, including the literature of the Kazakhs (literature written by ethnic Kazakhs), the literature of Russians in Kazakhstan, and literature written in the Kazakh language. The complexities associated with delineating the subject mirror its complex history.
Specifics of Kazakh literature
1. Until mid 19 century was primarily unwritten and existed in form of oral legends, myths, songs, poems and stories in human memory, being transmitted by aqyns, zhuray, sals and sere, and talented people.
2. Part of the literary sources shared between other Turkic peoples was recorded in Italian Latin (Codex cumanicus), Persian, Arabic and Turkic languages.
3. Basis- myths, legends, folk stories on creation, etc.
Kazakh literature is the form and the way of the people’s expression of the world around them and its place in it, characterizes the uniqueness and the specifics of the cultural maturity. It must be viewed in several historical evolutionary dimensions: 1) all the literary works (folklore, legends, epics, poems, songs - oral and written ever created on the territory of modern day Kazakhstan since ancient times till present in old Turkic, Persian, Arabic languages; 2) the works created in the Kazakh steppes in post-Mongol times when the ethnic and cultural/linguistic processes was completed and the tribes that later on became the core of Kazakh khanate were formed in Chagatai and Kipshak languages; 3) legends, poems, songs and narratives originating dated back to the period of Kazakh khanate formation, Jungar invasions, and Russian expansion; 4) the literature created under the Russian colonial control marked by reflections of the consequences of Russian influence - positive and negative - Kazakh Enlightenment and reformists/Jadids and westernizes of late XIX-early XX centuries; 5) soviet period –post-revolutionary, Great Patriotic war, post-Stalinism, Brezhnev times and Gorbachev era; 6) post- 1991.
Kazakh literature of XV-XVIII centuries- the poetry of zhurau about essence of life, ethics and morale, social injustice, native land. The brightest representatives were Qodan-taishy, Asan-qaigy (the first Kazakh philosopher), author of aphorisms, - tolgau. Qaztygan-zhurau Suinish-uly was a lyrical poet and military singer who made his songs during the military battle to inspire the warriors. Most of his works did not survive.
Literature of the post-Mongol times is characterized by political component, as the poets (zhurau) were active fighters and statesmen fighting on the side of the post-Mongol states- khanates, for the interests of tribal chiefs or khans. The literature was common for the tribes living in the vast areas stretching of former Pax Mongolica where the cultural traditions were mixed – Turkic, Mongol and Persian/Arabic and cultural languages were Kipshak and Persia. The poems translated from one language to another were reinterpreted and enriched within the process, filled new events and names of the heroes were adapted to the regional specifics. One of the most popular was Kipshak translation of “Hosrov and Shirin” of Persian poet Nizami, made in 1341-1342 by Qytup, court poet under khan Uzbek. Qytup gave his version and filled the poem with the Kipshak proverbs and sayings. The record made in 1338 by Kipshak poet Berke Fatih ibn Edgy survived.
Horezmi from Kongrat tribe was famous for poem “Mukhabat-name” (1353) in 2 languages Kipshak and Persian. 2 versions of the poem was known – in Arabic and Uigur alphabet. In late XIV century- Soqyr-Akhmet Urgenshi and Farkylyh zhurau- no poems were left.
Sypyra zhurau Surgytai-uly lived under Tohtamysh and supported him but was known for being honest before the khan and openly criticized him for wrongdoings.
Qodan –taishy was known as zhurau and political figure (Argyn tribe), was opponent of Abulkhair khan, and supported descendants from Urus khan line – Akhmet, Janibek and Kerey in the confrontation with Abulkhair. He left zhoqtau song on the death a man who died in the struggle with Qoblandy.
Codex cumanicus
The Codex Cumanicus was a linguistic manual of the Middle Ages, designed to help Catholic missionaries toocommunicate with the Cumans/Polovtsy. It is currently housed in the Library of St. Mark, in Venice (Cod. Mar. Lat. DXLIX).
The first (fol. 1r-55v) is a practical handbook of the Kipchak tongue, containing glossaries of words in vulgar Italo-Latin and translations into Persian and Kipchak.
The second part (fol. 56r-82v) is a collection of various religious texts (including a translation of the Lord’s Prayer) and riddles in Kipchak, translated into Latin and Eastern Middle High German. This part of the Codex is referred to as the "German" or "Missionary's Book" and is believed to have been compiled by German Franciscans.
Classical Turkic literature
In 9-12 centuries with the development of oral folk literature and written literature forming the first concept of the imagery, artistic, educational value of art expression. Dictionary Diwaniyah lugat al-Turk, Mahmud Kashgar – vivid evidence of the cultural level of the Turkic peoples in the 11 century. Despite the linguistic character, the dictionary is considered a literary-historical and ethnographic collection. It also has several hundred lines of poetry, dozens of proverbs, sayings, wise aphorisms.
Kazakh folklore
Was formed within centuries on the local (aboriginal) traditions and under strong influences of neighboring and migrating peoples and consists of several genres. The basis – reflection of the natural-climatic conditions (steppe zones, dependence on cosmic phenomena and natural changes) in the economic and social lifestyle (cattle breeding, migration, tribal structure). The first professional collection of Kazakh folklore was initiated by C.Vlikhanov and V.Radlov. They developed the methodology of folklore samples recording with exact texts fixation and short passport data to them. The Russian Oriental and Geographical societies’ expedition members contributed greatly to folklore collecting. G.Potanin (1835-1920) published many Kazakh legends, tales, songs, proverbs, and samples of ritual/ceremonial poetry, epics, etc. In his work “Oriental motives in the medieval European epic” (1899) he stressed that many plots from Kazakh folklore migrated to Europe in various ways.
V.V.Radlov (1837-1918) made the first classification of Kazakh folklore: didactic, epic and lyrical genres.
A.A.Divayev collected and published the samples of Kazakh epics “Alpamys-batyr”, “Qoblandy”, “Qambar”, fairy tales, songs, etc.
After 1917 a big work on collecting, editing, research and publication was made by S.Seifullin, M.Auezov, I.Jansygyrov, B.Mailin, A.Zatayevich.
S.Seifullin classified Kazakh folklore as fairy tales, routine ceremonial poetry, religious sagas, songs, proverbs and sayings, philosophical-didactic aphorisms of biis (judges), verses for recitation (taqpaq), etc. He traces the origin of Kazakh folklore back to the medieval times (era of biis- judges and heroic epics) relevant to Nogay Horde times (end of XIV - mid XVI centuries) preceding the creation of Kazakh khanate.
M.Auezov, A.Margulan pointed to the close connection between folklore and literature in XVIII-XIX centuries. M.Auezov classified folklore as: small genres, heroic, routine poems, historical songs, aityses.
N.S.Smirnova suggested the periodization of Kazakh folklore: a) Kazakh ethnicity formation (common Turkic motives and traditions, zhyrau poetry); b) poetry of XVI-XVIII centuries (emergence of aqyns, historical songs and heroic epics about batyrs and heroes of the anti-Jungar struggle; aitys, lyrical songs separated from ritualistic poetry; c) oral poetry of XIX-XX centuries (growth of social and political motives); d) soviet times folklore.
Folk tales
Auezov M. classified Kazakh tales into:
1) legends- philosophy
2)
social tales- life style, morale and ethics
3) satirical-
fight between good and evil, truth and lies
4) epic stories about heroes
5) fables for entertainment
Fairy tales
Are one of the most archaic forms of Kazakh folklore, exists in 3 major genre types: 1) fairy/magical tales; 2) routine tales; 3) tales about animals. The root traditions are based on the legends common for all the Turkic peoples, but particular Kazakh stratum was formed as the cultural mix/melting pot during the Persian/Arabic interlude and Mongol invasions. In the XV-XVIII centuries were formed fairy and routine tales, and a special cycle about wise man- Zhirenshe-sheshen (orator) and inventive liar Aldar Kose. The plots during the military conflicts were enriched by heroic epics.
Tales types: 1) about animals and their role in the nature, relations to humans and symbolic representation of the origin of human qualities: wit, wisdom, stupidity and courage, typical for children with the similar plots as in the tales of other peoples; 2) fables on the origin of things openly expressing the ideal; 3) with ethic content on the origin of society and its norms/problems represented directly the human world
Magical tales date back to the primitive society times, and many relics of the lifestyle, social organization (matriarchate), beliefs (animism, totemism fetishism, magic), rituals (kuvada, dual society, aunkulat, polyandry, polygamy), ethical and aesthetical visions, are clearly emphasized through the remarks on the origin. Magical tales are close to heroic epics, have prologue and epilogue, and deal mostly with the human actions in the broad social-historical content within the cosmic – salvation mission, fight between evil and good. The main hero is an idealized person, defender of the people’s interests and fighter against social injustice from the low social strata: hunter, shepherd, batyr, etc. The magical tales social context changed within the times- the main heroes evolved from a people’s defender into a successor of the tribal/clan traditions – younger son. The routine tales are big stories about with rich social context aimed to prove some morale or satirize evil – injustice, idle life, or rich people, that exploit the poor. The main heroes are popular Aldar-Kose, Zherenshe-sheshen, Qozhanasyr.
Riddles
Minor genre in form of poetical definitions of one or two phrases or lines, describing typical and specific features of natural and social phenomena, the people have to guess. Functions: educational (training of logic and imagination) and entertaining. Types: riddles and aitys-riddle (are created during the aityses by aqyns to complicate the task of the opponent). The most famous are riddles composed during aityes between Aset and Ryszhan, Sapargali and Nurzhan. The composition of riddles is close to proverbs and sayings, aphorisms and orator statements.
Persian influence- dastan
Dastan- (from Persian- story) epic poem, folklore interpretation of heroic myths, legends and fables. They usually tell about adventures in hyperbolized way, exaggerating the difficulties the idealized heroes have to solve. 2 types of dastan: folklore and literary. Dastans influenced the education, world outlook formation and arts of many Kazakh poets/aqyns, zurshy, and writers
Epics
“Er-Targyn” (Kazan, 1862), was recorded by N.Ilminsky from the words of aqyn Marabay.
Epic - one of the genres of oral folk art, originating in the early times from short tales and legends of Turkic times about heroes and their exploits. Most of epics were formed in Mongol and post-Mongol times (XIII- XIV centuries) during turbulent times when only strong people could survive and provide freedom and stability. Epics “Kara-bek”, “Yer Kokshe”, “Kobylandy-batyr” were created post XIII century. All the personages of epics were warriors - the models of military honor and heroism - both in the battlefields and in peacetimes. Epics’ narrators (zhurshy and zhurau) were also great warriors. Asan Qaigy was one of the influential statesmen and warlords of the Golden Horde principalities- of Ulu Mukhamed. “Oguz-name”- is common for the Turkic peoples, was created on the basis of the Oguz tribes’ legend about their military campaigns, leaders and way of life. It is known by the records of VIII century Rashiddin, later version – of Abylgazi (XVII century). “Mukhabat-name”- collection of epics created in XIV century by Turkic Kipshak tribes living along the Sur-Dariya River (Oguz-Kipshak tribes). The poetical version –dastan (created by poet Khorezmi) came in two linguistic versions- Old Turkic and Arabic. The second version lists some personalities (Janibek, Mukhambet, Qozhabek) from the Kazakh history.
“Yer-Targyn” - Kazakh heroic epic, but also refers to Nogay period historical legacy common for Tatars and Bashkirs, the content correlates with the historical events of XV century when the main hero Yer-Targyn – batyr, people’s defender, and fighter against invaders. He is accompanied by his beloved Aq-Zhynis. The main idea of the epic- unity between tribes for the common cause, end of inter-tribal rivalry. It was first recorded and published in Kazan (1862), N.Ilminsky from the words of aqyn Marabay
Zhyrau or zhyrshy
(from Turkic- jir- song) – singers in the khan’s horde residence, depicting the most significant events in politics and social life, glorifying the rulers and heroes, criticizing the wrongdoings, advising and forecasting. Zhyrau as form of poetical activities originate in V century BCE out of the shamans functional duties, which by time diversified and there grew out many labor specializations. The foretellers and epics narrators were called zhyrau, healers- baqsy. The first recorded zhyrau are stone inscriptions on the monuments to Turkic rulers- Bige-kagan and Tonyukuk. Iyuolyg-tegin –author of the inscriptions- the first of known zhyrau in history whose works survived in nomadic society. Evolution of steppe oral poetry and narration crystallized in the Kipshak steppe in XII century embracing specifics of nomadic lifestyle, maintenance of ancient traditions, free warrior mentality and was enriched by complex network of links with other cultures and religions. The zhyrau Golden age in Kazakh steppe began since XV century. By that time Turkic poetry freed itself from Arabic and Persian borrowings in style and content, and dealt with philosophical and social-political issues mostly. The most famous were Sypyr, Dospambet, Bukhar, Umbetey, Asan-kaigy, Qaztygan, Shalkiiz, Tatti-Kerey, etc. Zhyrau also dealt with the foreign policy activities described missions of embassies, delegations reception, military campaign declaration, disputes between tribal confederations and tribal leaders, peace making and diplomatic relations with neighbors. Zhurau performed numerous functions in society: 1) leadership- political, military and social; 2) diplomacy – inter-and intra-tribal problems motion and dispute settlement; 3) ideology creation and promotion, advising at all levels, expression of public opinion and mobilization for some cause; 4) traditions, culture and history maintenance; 5) education; 6) foretelling, entertainment and psychological training.legendary Sypyr-zhyrau was said to correct 9 rulers by his songs. Kazakhstani philologist M.Magauin, researcher of zhyrau heritage, told that Ketbyga-zhyrau (lived in XII century) was to bring the “black” news of Chingyz khan’s elder son Jochi, but created a song "Аqsaq kulan" (Lame kulan) and performed to the great khan. As zhyaru pronounced no word, the musical instrument –qobyz- was punished- filled with melt lead by the khan’s order. In ancient times zhyrau accompanied his songs by playing musical instruments, qobyz was the typical one, but by XVIII century he was just poet-improviser. With the introduction of Islam into the steppe societies zhyrau poetry was declared pagan and forbidden as it challenged the authority of Muslim clergy. Qobyz was called “devil instrument” and burnt, while zhyraus were declared non-grata and persecuted. The last zhurau was Bukhar, advisor to Abylai khan. Zhuray heritage is hidden by time, and practically lost, as their records are distorted by copywriters who used Arabic. Script changes initaiated by Russian and soviet authorities cut off considerable part of cultural heritage. The soviet politics of nations creation viewed khans, sultans, batyrs, zhyraus, Turkic unity to be “bourgeois nationalism” and banned their studies. In the 1958 edition of the “Anthology of Kazakh poetry”, it begins from XVII century- Bukhar zhyrau poetry. In fact, that was the end of zhyrau poetry Golden age.
Qaztugan zhurau- epics creator and narrator, military unit singer, tribal chief. Dospambet zhurau- military unit singer, knight who viewed death on the battlefield – the best lot for a warrior. Shakiiz-zhurau Tilenshi uly - spent all his life in fighting. Zhiembet and Margasqa- warlords of Yessim khan times
Aqtamberdi zhurau- warlord of the war against Jungars. Umbtei zhurau- warlord. Bukhar- zhurau- warlord. Sugir- protested against the soviet regime.
Zhurau- representative of the people, several clans, stood above the tribal politics, usually acting as an advisor to khan, dealing mostly with the supra-tribal issues of state significance.
Social poetry
1) funeral
2) wedding
3) cradle songs
Songs types
Estirty- song-message about the death of the close relative in indirect way through metaphors, metonymies, symbols. It ends with the naming of the man that passed away and a new song starts- zhybaty (counseling), that calls to stand firm and reconcile with the loss in indirect way through symbols, comparisons, metaphors.
Zhoqtay- song performed by relatives over his body right after the death news came, three times a day during 1 year until the commemoration feast. Zhoqtay has special tunes made on dombra or qobyz as kuis, in idealized way are listed the virtues of the diseased person and is expressed deep sorrow on his death.
Qoshtasy (farewell songs) types: farewell to motherland, native lands, youth, life, etc. The most famous qoshtasy are improvisations created in different times: Kazakh -Jungar wars, Tauke song to Jetysy befreo exile to Siberia, Sabyrbay and Birzhan aqyns songs before death, Ai and Tansyq songs to native lands in epic “Qozy-Korpesh and Bayan suly”.
Olen
Olen - song, essential part of the lifestyle, moral-psychological basis and social-political realities of Kazakh people. Genres: 1) social-political (non-ceremonial): arnau (dedication); madaqtau (admiration); tarihi olen (historical); qara olen (simple/ordinary verses); hat-olen (message): sin-olen (individual –lyric); zheldirme (fast tempo recitative); 2) ceremonial-routine: toi-bastar (wedding ceremony opening); toi-tarqar (wedding ceremony closing); zhar-zhar (wedding ceremony duets - males vs females); bet-ashar (bride’s face opening); besik zhyry (cradle songs); qoshtasy (farewell); zhoqtau (mourning); zhal-saly (announcements); estirty, konil aity, zhubaty (notification of death, condolences, consolation); 3) working, trade songs: tinlik (pastoral); eginshilik (agrarian, anshylyk, saltkerlik (hunters’ songs); zhymyshshy zhyry (workers’ songs); 3) didactic: nakliyat (didactic); algys bata, tilek bery (wishes, blessings, gratitude); zharapazan (carols); taqpaq (declamations); zhymbaq (riddles/puzzles); mysal (fables); 4) fantasy-songs: anyz (legends); otirik (fables); 5) satirical-humorous; 6) ceremonial/ritualistic.
Modern lyrical songs: 1) social-political (non-ceremonial) about motherland, heroes of war, revolutionary, rebellious, patriotic- “Elim-ai” (originates in the period of Jungar invasions); 2) ceremonial-ritualistic- routine family life episodes, problems; 3) love lyrics.
Aqyn
Poet in Kazakh culture, the representative of tribe, traveling from one place to another to compete other aqyns to raise only inter-tribal relations. The origin of the word: 1) Persian (scholar, educated, respected, smart; 2) Kazakh (freely flow); 3) Turkic (the one who attacks). The mission- to defend the tribal reputation/status during the poetical competitions in ancient times started before the military conflict to: a) demonstrate the military spirit; b) call the spirits for protection; c) psychological pressure on the opponent by mocking the opponent. In peacetimes aqyns performs the functions: a) wedding ceremonies; b) funerals; c) annual commemorations.
Functions of aqyns
Synergetic: narrators (creators and performers of epics), story tellers, poets, singers, musicians and composers, and guides in the complex world of traditions, rituals, bridge between past through present to the future, public figures as they took part in the disputes settlements, chronicles makers.
Criteria for good aqyns
1) excellent memory to details, general line and sequence of events, traditional phrases and formulas; 2) good diction; 3) talents to improvisation; 4) be able to answer questions and give comments; 5) play musical instruments; 6) contact with the audience; 7) good health; 8) good food and no alcoholism; 9) good temper and humour.
Aqyn arts
1) gift from the heaven; 2) recognition by the reputable aqyns/experts after participation in the aitys and other contests- exam and blessing- bata; 3) blessing from the holy place – grave yard of the saint.
Types of aqyns by performing arts
1) zhai aqyn; 2) kyssa aqyn; 3) aqpa aqyn.
Zhai aqyn- have simple and general performing talent to play and sing traditional things from epics and legends.
Kyssa aqyn- have a good memory and sing long pieces from books and chronicles.
Types of aqyns practices
1) wishes and blessings; 2) critics of human vices; 3) jokes as tests of wit and entertainment; 4) psychological characteristics of human traits; 5) condolence on tragic news and events; 6) education and encouragement; 7) philosophy; 8) legal cases settlement; 8) aitys.
Aitys
(from Kazakh oral debates/discussions) a specific genre of Kazakh oral art in form of musical-poetical contests between the representatives of tribes- aqyns, evolved from the archaic traditions of competitions between fratrias (tribes led by brothers) during the rituals performing. Later on it transformed into the disputes between tribes’ representatives – orators/sheshens- over judicial affairs; usually were accompanied by playing musical instruments and songs- kuis. Aitys as a special bearer, retranslator of Kazakh history, traditions, arts and culture, has a number of functions: 1) communicative – synchronic (in present time- between the aitys participants and the public), diachronic (past – between generations), and between the worlds –this, the other and cosmos; 2) social- political: form of steppe democracy, public mobilization and political socialization, public opinion expression, representation of tribes interests and problems, conflicts/disputes settlement in peaceful way, defense of tribal interests; 3) education; 4) economic - redistribution of resources between the groups- the rich were to share through feasts arranging and rewards giving and the poor had chances for getting the piece of wealth; 5) cultural - historical heritage maintenance and sharing, accumulation, enrichment, innovation, free access to all social groups through listening, participation and imitating, and entertainment. The inner structure of aitys is based on the artistic-aesthetical mutually influencing emotional experience. Aityses were held in public, divided into 2 parties, each supporting one performer by loud cries and exclamations. The result –victory or loss- depended totally on the art and experience of aitys participant, and was first honestly admitted by the participant that he fails. Aitys participants were to be very skilled in poetry, music, singing, orator arts, logic, memory, making use out of the fragmented pieces of information about the opponent’s personality, his tribe and events within and around his tribe/clan and family, and be able to improvise. Types of aitys- zhar-zhar, autys with riddles, badik (spelling)- performed in turn by men and women choruses to expel the evil spirits from the sick person; qaiym – poetical musical contest between young man and woman in improvisation (changing the last words of the famous songs);
contests between orators (sheshen) and biis (judges); taqpaqtasy – poetical game when the next aqyn must continue the poetical sentence of the previous one. Aitys criteria: a) representatives of the same tribe do not compete; b) no contest between the males and females – relatives along the male line. The XIX century famous aityskers - Orynbai, Shozhe, Suimbai, Birzhan, Jambul, Maikot, Aset, etc. Among the prominent women aitysker of XIX century were: Sara, Aqsulu, manta, Bolyq, Ryszhan. The musical structure of aitys- tuning: 1) maqam (originates from epics narration); 2) saryn (originates from shamans/baqsy recitative). The tuning functions are: 1) artistic expression of the idea to bring it to the listeners; 2) positive impression on public; 3) individual style of the performer. Aitys includes elements of dramatizing, art of improvisation, signing and speaking culture. The places where aityses are held are richly decorated, and the participants wear bright garments. The aitys content depended on the social-political situation, the nature of relations between the tribes and clans, actual themes within the tribal life, participants’ potential, ambitions and qualities, but to focus on the selected topic. Often the participants shifted to general topics to personal relationship criticizing each others’ deficits and vices. Aityses were held for tribal supremacy demonstration, for participants- defend the tribal reputation, excel in professional learning, they were highly praised and rewarded- cattle (horse, camel), gifts, reputation, for training, experience sharing and enrichment of the repertoire. The most reputable aityses performers were titled sal or sere/seri- Birzhan –sal (Birzhan the noble, Akhan-sere (knight). The high level of musical and poetical culture was maintained through creation and development of traditions through regular performances and participation in aityses but training of disciples that accompanied aqyns and copied, memorized and then transmitted their music, performance techniques, texts of their songs and poems. The training for aitys participants (aitysker) lasted for many years and consisted of the stages: 1) memorization of others’ songs; 2) light tests- aqyn was to reveal his own talents by signing his songs that copied/imitated the well-known patterns; 3) participation in aityses on the given topic with improvisation; 4) maturity – personal and artistic- creation of individual works and free expression of talents in the contests.