Файл: 4 курс - Making A Text In English.doc

Exercise 18. INCLUSION, EXCLUSION & RESTRICTION. Complete the sentences below about the famous people in the box. Use the words in brackets.

FAMOUS PEOPLE QUIZ.

1. They were all Europeans . (apart)

2. was Italian . (as well)

3. None of them were soldiers . (except)

4. created works of art. (both)

5. was famous as a scientist. (only)

6. All of them died before the twentieth century . (exception)

7. was also assassinated. (besides)

Exercise 19.

In the table below you can see an analysis of the results of a health questionnaire filled in by five business executives. Summarise the results and make a report.

Example: No-one goes in for sport except Mr. McCarthy.

1.1.4.ALTERNATIVES

Exercise 20. Find a suitable position for INSTEAD in the sentences below. Alter punctuation if necessary.

instead

Example: We gave up the idea of moving into a new house and / decided to extend our existing house.

1. Cars will not run on petrol in future, they will run on hydrogen.

2. They hoped to make money on the stock exchange but lost everything.

3. We no longer post letters to Hong Kong, we send faxes.

4. Typewriters are becoming obsolete most writing is done on word processors.

5. We don’t make any products by hand nowadays we use computer controlled robots.

6. He didn't go to university, he found a job.

Exercise 21. OTHERWISE, ALTERNATIVELY. Follow the example to link the messages.

Example:

He may have an accident / I hope he drives carefully  I hope he drives carefully. Otherwise he may have an accident.

1. If the goods are faulty we can replace them / we can give you a refund.

2. You could get one tomorrow morning / there is a plane tonight.

3. He will fail / Tom will have to work harder.

4. We must improve our profits / we could go bankrupt.

5. You can pay for it in instalments / you can buy the car now.

6. You could take the exam in May / you could wait till August.

7. You could take the first bus / you could travel later in the day.

8. You’d better go now / you will miss your train.

9. These relaxing Video evenings take place in local Church Center Member’s homes. (Admission charge - 50p.) / we can lend you a video to watch in your own home.

Exercise 22. ALTERNATIVELY, OTHERWISE, INSTEAD, ELSE. Complete the texts.

1. (a government minister is speaking)

We must reduce public spending. ¹, we’ll never defeat inflation. We must stop spending money which we have not earned, and ² look at every branch of government to see if savings are possible. Savings may be possible in the health budget. ³, we may be able to cut spending on education.

2. (giving directions to a driver)

I wouldn’t take the A4 if I were you – the traffic on it is very heavy. ⁴, I would take the B402 to Southam but be careful to take the ring road round Southam. ⁵, you will get stuck in the town centre. Then the B438 north, or ⁶ you could go onto the motorway.

Exercise 23. Fill in the blanks in the conversation below using each of these words once.

prefer or either rather

else alternatively instead otherwise

JAMES: As a starter you can have either vegetable soup ¹__________ham.

LINDA: I’d like some vegetable soup.

JAMES: Then for the main course there’s stake or roast lamb…

LINDA: No, I don’t fancy ²________of them.

JAMES: Well you could have chicken casserole ³_______. The vegetables are potatoes, peas or ⁴_________ carrots.

LINDA: I’ll have the chicken with potatoes.

JAMES: What wine would you like to drink? There’s Italian wine.⁵ ________ it will have to be French red.

LINDA: I’d ⁶____ have the Italian white wine.

JAMES: OK. For dessert you could try the ice cream. ⁷____ there’s fruit salad.

LINDA: Well, I’d ⁸________ fruit salad.

Exercise 24. RESTRICTION AND ALTERNATIVES. Translate the following sentences into English:

1. Виолончель похожа на скрипку – только больше по размеру.

2. У Молли такая же работа, как и у моей сестры, но она работает неполный рабочий день.

3. Персидский алфавит очень похож на арабский, только добавлено несколько букв.

4. Это упражнение – только для людей с хорошей физической подготовкой.

5. Пока болезнь выявлена только у коров, и ученые пытаются остановить эпидемию.

6. (fairly fml.) Доступ к файлам открыт только для персонала.

7. Вы здесь лишь потому, что я так хочу.

8. Кроме меня, никто не курил.

9. Это не просто фильм для детей.

10. Просто добавь кипятка.

11. «А затем я его убил», - сказал он таким обыденным тоном, как будто мы просто разговаривали о погоде.

12. Большая часть таких заводов не просто располагалась в Индии; ими владели индусы.

13. Это – всего лишь дело привычки.

14. В тюрьме было полно женщин, которые провели там месяцы просто потому, что у них не было 50 долларов, чтобы заплатить штраф.

15. (fml) Членами клуба могут стать только мужчины.

16. Это – единственный выход и нужно хвататься за эту возможность.

17. Я – единственный иностранец в группе.

18. Даже малышам понравился концерт.

19. Я просто предложил, чтобы вы это переделали; не стоит кричать.

20. Боюсь, я просто не знаю.

21. Все, что я купила – это пара перчаток.

22. Сэндвич – единственное, что я сегодня съел.

23. Она только сказала, что уходит – и все.

24. (fml) Членами клуба могут стать только те, кому еще нет 30.

25. Осторожно, а не то ударишься головой.

26. Что-то не хочется пиццу – может, возьмем что-нибудь другое?

27. Нам бы обоим хотелось жить на севере Англии, но с работой там тяжело.

28. Значительная часть молодых людей скорее рискнет попасть в тюрьму, чем пойдет в армию.

29. По мне уж лучше пусть придут в эти выходные, чем в следующие.

30. В этом году я бы лучше поехала на лыжный курорт вместо похода.

31. Вместо уксуса она добавляет в салаты лимон.

32. Вместо того, чтобы часами ездить и выискивать место для парковки, почему бы тебе не ездить в город на автобусе?

33. Он предпочитает классическую музыку поп музыке.

34. Французы обычно предпочитают покупать товары, сделанные во Франции.

35. Она любит валяться на пляже, а я предпочитаю музеи.

36. Похоже, ей больше нравится смотреть мыльные оперы, чем разговаривать со мной

37. Большинство женщин предпочитают кормить грудью, а не смесями.

38. Конечно, это прекрасная возможность заработать кучу денег. С другой стороны, рисковое это дело.

39. У него или жуткое похмелье, или он просто не выспался.

40. Вместо того, чтобы положить сверток вниз, мы положим его наверх – пусть поищет!

41. Вряд ли он болен, иначе не пришел бы.

42. Вы должны заплатить штраф, иначе сядете в тюрьму.

43. Лучше поиграю в теннис вместо речки.

44. Скорее нужно винить не детей, а родителей.

45. Это решение было принято скорее по политическим мотивам, чем из соображений военной безопасности.

46. Петь люблю больше, чем играть на сцене.

47. Он выбрал Испанию, но лично я бы предпочла поехать в Грецию.

48. Если не хочешь идти, пойду я вместо тебя.

49. Ты должен быть на работе, а не валяться в постели.

50. Я знаю, что работа у меня не высокооплачиваемая, но с другой стороны, мне не нужно работать с 9 до 6.

Exercise 25. INCLUSION, ALTERNATIVES, EXCLUSION, RESTRICTION.

Choose from the list of linking devices to fill in the blanks in the description below.

A: POLITICAL SPEECH

Except for instead otherwise what’s more

Apart from even moreover else

The government doesn’t understand the problems of the poor and the unemployed. ¹____ they don’t ²_____ care about these problems. ³ ______ one or two insignificant adjustments to the tax laws they have done nothing to improve the living conditions of the low paid workers. ⁴_____ they have poured public money into the pockets of the rich. ⁵_______ they have stood and watched as this nation’s key industries sunk into decline. What ⁶______ has this government got in store for us? Nobody, ⁷______the Prime Minister apparently, believes that these policies can lead to success. This government must resign; ⁸_____ the country will never recover its moral and economic position.

B: IN THE STATION

All of these people are in the waiting room of a railway station. All of them are sitting ¹ ____ of the last one on the right. ²____ from one woman, they're all men. The first and the second are ­reading a newspaper. ⁴_______ one of them is wearing a hat. The ⁵____ have got nothing on their heads. The one in the middle is drinking ⁶____ a coffee or a tea he has bought from the vending machine. The woman hasn't got any luggage, not ⁷____ a handbag. One man is sleeping, and ⁸____ is the man next to him. The woman, ⁹____ as the man who is standing, isn't very lucky. ¹⁰___of them have just missed a train, They'll have to wait ¹¹___ hour till the next train comes!

Exercise 27. EXCLUSION, RESTRICTION & ALTERNATIVES.

Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Мы хорошо провели время, только погода была холодная.

2. Погода была холодная, а так мы хорошо провели время.

3. Мы неплохо провели время, несмотря на погоду.

4. Мы бы неплохо провели время, если бы не погода.

5. Я сделаю все - только не это.

6. Ты ничего не делаешь - только меня критикуешь.

7. Если бы не твой звонок, я ничего бы и не знал.

8. Никто, кроме президента, не может принять такое решение.

9. Лишь президент может принять такое решение.

10. Все были за это предложение, за исключением заведующего.

11. Если не считать Джима, у меня не было там друзей.

12. Он был единственным человеком, кто выступил против.

13. Я только упомянул ее имя, а он уже взорвался.

14. Осталось всего 5 минут до конца занятия.

15. Он не стал поступать в университет. Вместо этого он пошел работать.

16. Пожалуйста, займись делом, а не то я рассержусь!

17. Помешивай соус, пока не загустеет, а не то в нем будут комки.

18. Прекрати шуметь – соседи будут жаловаться.

19. Вы обязаны починить телевизор. Или верните мне деньги.

20. Можно встретиться у меня дома. Если нет, давайте поговорим здесь.

21. Можно пойти на футбол вместо лекции.

22. До финального свистка осталось всего 5 минут.

23. Только Рузвельт был президентом 4 срока.

24. Количество присутствующих на церемонии открытия ограничено.

25. Пятеро служащих были уволены, а еще пятеро – арестованы.

26. Ваш банк обязан вернуть мне деньги. В противном случае я буду вынужден обратиться в суд.

1.2. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

1.2.1.COMPARISON

Exercise 1. A: AS vs. LIKE. Fill in the blanks with the linkers.

1. Joan’s not self-confident she seems.

2. Peter says he is going to work a salesman.

3. Stop crying a child!

4. Please do exactly I told you.

5. My brother isn’t me at all.

6. John started singing a professional only a couple of years ago, when he recorded his first LP.

7. Laura sings a professional, even though she’s never given a real concert

8. To make a potato salad, start this: boil the potatoes…

9. Pick that shell up – we can use it an ashtray.

10. I still remember her. She used to be a daughter to me.

11. Our plan succeeded _______ we hoped.

B: AS vs. LIKE. Choose an item from the list below to complete the sentences.

A person, a secretary, a dessert, a union representative, an angel, an office , cardboard, he writes, her mother.

1. Susan sings .

2. I worked for five years.

3. Henry uses the dining room .

4. That cat snores just .

5. I’ve come to this meeting .

6. This bread tastes .

7. James speaks : carefully and precisely.

8. She’s clever and passionate -_______ .

9. Why don’t we have ice cream _____.

Exercise 2. Here are the beginnings and endings of some idiomatic expressions with as…as. Think of the situations where you would use them.

1.2.2.-1.2.3. CONTRAST / CONCESSION

Exercise 3. WHEREAS vs. ALTHOUGH. Join the ideas with the help of the linkers.

Exercise 4. BUT vs. ALTHOUGH.

Look at the notes below. Make sentences with a similar meaning using the above linkers as in the example. Change the order if necessary.

Examlpe: Sally isn’t very tall / Sally is good at basketball.  Although Sally isn’t very tall, she is good at basketball. Sally isn’t very tall, but she is good at basketball.

1. Mongolia doesn’t have a large population /Mongolia is a large country.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

2. Jane likes to sing / Jane is not a very good singer.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

3. My car runs very well /I didn’t pay a lot of money for my car.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

4. Syntex is a smaller company than Tenbol / Syntex is more profitable than Tenbol.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

5. Van Gogh’s paintings are now worth millions / Van Gogh didn’t sell any paintings during his lifetime.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

6. The project was almost complete / it lost its funding.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

7. A lot of novels are published every year / very few novels become bestsellers.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

8. There remain diseases for which there’s no cure / smallpox has been eradicated.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Exercise 5. HOWEVER & NEVERTHELESS. Choose a correct linker. Sometimes both may do.

Captain Crock is reporting on a planet he is exploring.

The creatures on this planet appear to be intelligent. However/Nevertheless, they have not tried to make contact with us. The area to the North is a desert. However/Nevertheless, the area to the South has thick forests. Several of our crew have had a strange illness, but nevertheless/however we intend to continue with our exploration. The planet has two suns. One of them is like our own sun. Nevertheless /However, the other is blue in colour. The planet is beautiful, but however / nevertheless there is something frightening about it. I have ordered Mercury brigade to explore to the South. However/Nevertheless, Mars brigade will stay to guard the spaceship. I was bitten by a giant ant this morning. However/Nevertheless, I shall continue… (Here Captain Crock’s report ends.)

Exercise 6. ON THE OTHER HAND vs. BY CONTRAST. Choose a relevant linker so that the sentence sounds logical.

Example:School nowadays do not encourage memorisation.

1. On the other hand, pupils do more projects and investigative work.

2. By contrast, pupils in former times had to learn many things by heart.

1. Lang (1973) reported good results using the drug Trisulphin.

1. a) , he also listed a number of unpleasant side-effects.

2. b) , a newer drug, Enzolfalm, appeared to have little effect.

2. Tennis players often behave badly without losing points.

a) , football players are immediately sent off the field.

b) , they are sometimes fined for bad behaviour.

3. The original Salko GL was not an advanced car technically.

a) , the new model is a remarkable technical achievement.

b) , it was inexpensive, comfortable and easy to maintain.

4. In old age people may lose some of their mental agility.

a) , they often gain a greater understanding of life.

b) , young people are often very quick in absorbing information.

5. Teleworking is comfortable and convenient.

a) , one may miss the chance to discuss things with colleagues.

b) , travelling every day to an office is tiring and expensive.

Exercise 7. IN SPITE OF & DESPITE. Use the ideas below and a relevant linker to make up meaningful sentences.

Example: He was never satisfied / he was one of the richest men in the world

 He was never satisfied, despite being one of the richest men in the world.

1. We arrived on time / the heavy traffic on the motorway.

2. Our team lost two early goals / our team won comfortably in the end.

3. Our present economic difficulties / the company should recover next year.

4. The police chief fought against the Mafia / he received death threats.

5. Joe did not become wealthy / he worked hard all his life.

6. Relatively few buildings were damaged / the severity of the earthquake.

7. Jill is back at work / she has just had a baby.

8. She became president of the company / widespread prejudice against women.

Exercise 8. ON THE CONTRARY & CONVERSELY. Choose a relevant connector to link the sentences below.

Example: Conversely

Over 90 per cent of the top group of students passed the exam. / Only 10 per cent of the lowest group achieved the required standard.

1. I don’t blame the author for punching the reviewer on the nose. I think he was completely justified in doing so.

2. I have never heard John say anything bad about you. He has always spoken well of you.

3. The proportion of people renting houses has declined over the years. The percentage of people buying their own houses has increased.

4. If a triangle has two equal sides, it must have two equal angles. If there are two equal angles, it must have equal sides.

5. Our firm has no objections to employing older people. Applications from people over fifty will be welcomed.

6. Some people can eat more than others and still not gain weight. Some people can eat less than others and still gain weight.

Exercise 9. ALTHOUGH vs. IN SPITE OF (DESPITE).

Read the news items below. Insert one of the above listed linkers.

1. The government has announced that ¹ sharp downturn in economic activity, it will not abandon its anti-inflation policy. ² unemployment increased by 250,000 last month, tight control of government spending is seen as the key to recovery.

2. (reviewing a motorshow) ³ the new Splendido XL2 contains many improvements, the price remains the same as for the XL1. At 24,000 pounds, the car represents excellent value, ⁴ it is obviously not a vehicle for the average motorist.

3. Famines and food shortages have increased in the Third World ⁵ improved methods of agriculture. Moreover, ⁶ there is actually a surplus of some types of food in Western Europe and the USA, much of this food is wasted or even destroyed.

4. (travel report) ⁷ widespread fog tonight, there are no reports of any problems at the airports. However, ⁸ warning lights on the MI motorway, the police are still reporting problems with motorists driving too close to the car in front.

5. __________⁹ as a society we have made great environmental progress in the last few decades, it is becoming increasingly clear that we cannot continue to do so if we do not change the way we grow.

Exercise 10. EVEN THOUGH vs. EVEN IF.

Rewrite each of the following sentences so that it begins with either connector and means the same as the given statement.

1. I don’t know if she saw me but she certainly heard me.

2. Alex typed the letter carefully. Nevertheless he made some mistakes.

3. The restaurant may be rather expensive. I still think we should go there.

4. Whether his wife agrees or not he has decided to sell the house.

5. She doesn’t speak English very well but she understands it perfectly.

6. I’m very tired, but I want to finish reading this chapter.

7. It doesn’t matter how long it takes – the work must be done.

8. She may not expect me to meet her at the station but I’ll go there anyway.

9. We studied algebra at school but I still don’t really understand it

10. It wouldn’t matter if the team won all their games. Their fans would still complain.

Exercise 11. Fill in the blanks using the following linking expressions:

despite whereas while even if even though even so

1. Patient care is suffering ________ nursing posts remain vacant across the province, according to local nurses in a new survey published at the weekend by the Royal College of Nursing and Nursing Standard.

2. In Brazil they speak Portuguese in most of South America they speak Spanish.

3. The weather was cold and wet; I felt a sense of joy.

4. The company couldn’t sell the product spending a lot on advertising.

5. ________ considerable progress, the overall goal of clean and healthy air continues to elude much of the country.

6. Sometimes I can’t understand you I know you very well.

7. He hasn’t phoned me but we are going to start work tomorrow he isn’t ready.

Exercise 12. Fill in the blanks using a linking –EVER word.

1. hard the team train they will never win the championship.

2. Come and stay with us you feel like it.

3. he says, don’t believe a word of it.

4. gets elected, President will face an impossible situation.

5. we go for our holiday it should be a place with plenty of sunshine.

6. They could choose between two routes – they decide to take they should be here in an hour.

7. Here’s some money – buy you like.

8. We’re going to come across difficulties we approach the problem.

9. _______ you say, I still like her.

10. _______ long you wear them, there’ll be no lost creases.

11. _______ advice you give him, he still does exactly what he wants.

12. She looks pretty ________ she wears.

13. _______ I asked, nobody was sure.

Exercise 13. Insert appropriate contrastive and concessive linkers.

1. ________you say, I don’t care.

2. _________I advise the children about money, I never actually pay their debts.

3. The classrooms are small, _________not unsuitable.

4. __________the difference in their ages, they were close friends.

5. _________cold it is, she always goes swimming.

6. I think she’s Swiss. I’m not sure _______.

7. Demand for this car is high, _________its high price.

8. He read the newspaper ___________he waited for the train.

9. Humans are capable of error _________the computer is not.

10. _________it’s hard work, I enjoy it.

11. I won’t accept this offer, ________favourable the conditions.

12. Yoko, ________shy, managed to speak to everyone in the room.

13. ________ we want a flat, our children would rather live in a house.

14. He can be very rude but ________ I can’t help liking him.

15. I realize she can be very annoying but_______ I think you should apologize for losing your temper with her.

16. ________he was late, he stopped to buy a sandwich.

17. –It’s not very useful.

-It’s pretty _____, isn’t it?

18. _______his poor health, my father was always cheerful.

19. ________my room is small, it’s very comfortable.

20. What you said was true but ________unkind.

21. American cars are generally too large for the Japanese market ______ Japanese cars are popular in the US.

22. ________strong the temptation, don’t stay in any job too long.

23. It wasn’t wonderful, ­­­­­­­­________ it was well acted.

24. I’ll go ______ his objecting to my presence.

25. He’s almost finished _______ I’m just starting my course.

26. ________ most of his friends study hard, he’s quite lazy.

27. I used to read a lot, _______ I never had much time.

28. _______ you fail, you gain experience.

29. This punishment, ______ perhaps necessary, seems rather severe.

30. ________ much you object, he will carry his point.

31. ________ tired, he was not disheartened.

32. ________ I say to them, I can’t keep them quiet.

33. ________ working hard, he failed the final exam.

34. His family, ______ not noble, seems to have been of some importance.

35. I may fail, _______ I’ll try.

36. John is very careful _______ Christopher makes a lot of mistakes.

37. We didn’t like the hotel at all. _______ , we still enjoyed ourselves.

38. She had a bad knee, ________ she won the game.

39. The south is hot and dry_______ the north gets quite a lot of rain.

40. The old system had its flaws, but ________ it seemed fairer than the poll tax.

41. You seem to be fond of her. – ________ , I can’t stand her.

42. He is undoubtedly the best player in the team. ___________ , he is very unpopular with the other members.

43. He dresses in shabby clothes and, frankly, looks ______ a tramp. _________ , he’s one of our most brilliant concert pianists.

44. The first two witnesses could scarcely be heard. ________ , the third one spoke out clearly.

Exercise 14. Connect the ideas using appropriate contrast linkers.

1. The UAE (United Arab Emirates) have plenty of oil. Byelorussia has none.

2. They want a house. We’d rather live in a flat.

3. Does it rain a lot in the desert? It hardly ever rains there.

4. I know this job of mine isn’t well-paid. I don’t have to work long hours.

5. –I hear you’re enjoying your new job. –I find it rather dull.

6. It rarely rains in the desert. It rains a lot in the coastal areas.

7. It is hot in the desert in the day. It’s very cold there at night.

8. The coastal areas have mild winters. The central plains become extremely cold.

9. My car is very old. It still runs very well.

10. The offenders were dealt with firmly. They were dealt with fairly.

11. He was hard-working. There was never enough money to pay the bills.

12. He’s a bad manager. There’s no reason to dismiss him.

13. He sounds hoarse. He’s got a sore throat.

14. Both men say they are innocent. One of them must be lying.

15. War is a terrible thing. I believe we must defend our land.

16. The price increase will obviously be unpopular. It is unlikely to reduce demand.

17. This year’s fall in profits was not unexpected. It’s very disappointing.

18. You can use beer yeast for bread making. You can use bread yeast for brewing beer.

19. The company’s profits have fallen slightly. It is not a serious problem.

20. I’d hoped there might be a job for me. It wasn’t to be.

21. We have good reason to feel pleased with our progress. We mustn’t get complacent.

22. I have never been an enemy of monarchy. I consider monarchies essential.

23. The Russian federation has an area of 17 mln. square km. The tiny state of Monaco has an area of only 1,6 km².

24. You may feel that you should have received the award. I feel that the judges made the right decision.

25. This newspaper story could damage their reputation. It will give them a lot of free publicity.

Exercise 15. Cross out the incorrect answers. Both answers may be correct.

1. Although/ In spite of we left late, we still got there in time.

2. It was a fantastic evening although/ in spite of the terrible food.

3. We have decided to go in spite of/ despite the cost of the tickets.

4. They enjoyed the course even though/ whereas it was very difficult.

5. I love the sea while/ whereas most of my friends prefer the mountains.

6. We both told John the car was too expensive. However/ On the other hand, he still decided to buy it.

7. During the week the town centre is very busy. Whereas/ On the other hand, at the weekend it is very quiet and almost empty.

8. – It is the most significant novel of the twentieth century.

   • By contrast/ On the contrary, I wouldn’t light a fire with it!

9. Tim completed the race in 4 minutes 32.5 seconds, the slowest time for

several years. However/ Nevertheless, it was enough to win him the gold

medal.

10. I always enjoy sailing even though/ even if the sea is rough.

Exercise 16. Complete the sentences in a logical way.

1. I was able to follow what he was saying, even though ………….

2. I was able to follow what he was saying whereas ……………….

3. We enjoyed the holiday in spite of ……………………………….

4. The exam is very difficult. However, ……………………………

5. Although it was a very long film, ……………………………….

6. John had great difficulties playing cricket. On the other hand, ……………….

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

Exercise 17. Proofread the sentences.

1. The film was boring, although we continued to watch it

2. They still got burgled despite of all their elaborate security precautions.

3. It doesn’t matter however cold it gets, he never wears a coat.

4. She has a degree from Oxford University, though she’s still incredibly lacking in self-confidence.

5. She treats him even though he was her own son.

6. In spite of we take the fast train, we still arrived 20 minutes later.

7. Although I’m sure the bill is absolutely correct, but I’d still like to check it.

8. I had to accept the fact, though improbable it was.

Exercise 18. Paraphrase the following sentences, using the means of expressing comparison and contrast, so that the meaning remains the same.

1. Those silly horoscopes say that women Pisces are not as sociable as men are.

2. Thinking about it makes me feel more and more confused.

3. I didn't get angry with him. I rather felt sad.

4. When parents get older, they become difficult to deal with.

5. It was cold last week, but now it's warmer.

6. They were so shabby dressed that everyone took them for beggars.

7. His father always gets drunk on Saturdays, and so does Mike.

8. He acts like he's the boss.

9. He spoke as if pretending to be more intelligent than everybody else.

10. A cat is an extremely self-willed animal. A dog is used to obeying his master.

11. Mary was driving the car. Her husband was asleep in the back.

12. The firm was accommodating the customers. It was making aggressive demands.

13. Fred gambled his money away. Linda spent hers all on dresses & bric-a-brac.

14. It was pronounced badly, but he managed to recognize his name.

15. There was nothing dowdy or ugly about her dress. She had a certain private elegance.

16. You might be late, but it doesn't matter.

17. Whoever you live with, you'll have the same problem.

18. I'll do it, I really will! And I don't care a bit about what he thinks!

19. I'll go there, even if mother says no.

20. - Do you think he will come if it snowing?

• Yes, sure he will. He never breaks promises!

21. A new government took power, but the economic situation continued to deteriorate.

22. He was 20 years older, but they were great friends with Annie

23. – You'll get tired of it. – No , I'll enjoy it!

Exercise 19. Translate the sentences into English using appropriate linking expressions with the meaning of comparison or contrast.

1. Даже если ты не любишь памятники старины, замок Уорвик посетить стоит.

2. В то время как многие из нас понимают, что стресс является медицинской проблемой, лишь немногие осознают, насколько подвержены стрессам сами врачи. (stress-prone)

3. Джек такой тихоня, а его брат же, наоборот, сорвиголова (dare-devil).

4. Ричард – человек ненадежный и постоянно все забывает, но я его, тем не менее, люблю, так как он меня веселит.

5. Если он не в настроении - не стоит его ни о чем просить. И наоборот, когда у него хорошее настроение, он все готов сделать.

6. Несмотря на отсутствие опыта, он пошел на повышение.

7. Ивану Ленделю так и не удалось за 18 лет стать чемпионом Уимбелдона несмотря на тот факт, что он дважды играл в финале.

8. Некоторые актеры любят, чтобы их все время окружала толпа людей, в то время как другие предпочитают одиночество.

9. -Там бывают ливни?

–Напротив, дожди в этой области крайне редки.

10. Хотя он начал работать в компании совсем недавно, к нему относились

так же, как к другим сотрудникам.

11. Я не болен, напротив, я здоров как никогда.

12. Действительно, Алфонсо часто опаздывает, но с другой стороны, он отлично справляется со всей работой, которую ему поручают.

13. Невзирая на травму, Алданити – явный кандидат на участие в гонках.

14. Несмотря на все свои заверения и обещания, он не вернулся.

15. Я не мог пошевелиться – ноги будто к полу приросли.

16. Она заплатила, хотя и могла пройти бесплатно.

17. Но стул выдержал, хотя я слышал, как угрожающе скрипнула одна из ножек.

18. И хотя я знаю, что это опасно, я всё равно хочу пойти.

19. Я закончу эту работу, сколько бы времени это ни заняло.

20. Джеймс её нанял, невзирая на то, что она никогда не пела на сцене.

21. «Мы принимаем во внимание тот факт, что мистер Макгрегор тяжело болен», – сказал доктор Льюис. «Всё равно, он не должен грубить медсёстрам».

1.3. TIME

Exercise 1. Rewrite the sentences using the correct structures with the following linkers: no sooner... than, hardly... when and hardly ... before. Comment upon their meaning. Consult the examples.

Examples: No sooner had he closed his eyes than he fell asleep.

We had no sooner sat down than we found it was time to go.

Hardly had he uttered the words when he began laughing.

The local police had hardly finished their examination when the

CID arrived.

1. The moment hе was inside his cabin, the door opened again.

2. She had taken the knife from its hiding place and suddenly dropped it.

3. As soon as the ambassador had begun speaking, he was again interrupted by the president.

4. The moment the meeting had begun a shareholder leapt to his feet.

5. I was called out again immediately I closed my eyes.

6. She left the house. Her mobile phone rang.

7. As soon as Rob set out, the storm broke.

8. Jessica opened the door. The bird flew out of the cage.

9. They returned home and immediately realised that their house had been burgled.

10. Helen set the table. The guests arrived.

Exercise 2.

a) Identify the status of before, until, till, earlier, previously and hitherto. Think of the difference in their meanings.

1. Mr. Major spoke to Mr. Kohl shortly before the Chancellor flew to India.

2. Now he's more focused on his work. Before, he was distracted, always making plans to go out.

3. Several government officials were injured. Earlier, two bridges and several buildings were damaged by fires.

4. You will sleep and stay asleep until you are told to awake.

5. What about the dead man on the runway ? You previously said that if any of the hostages were harmed you would move in immediately.

6. These expeditions marked a significant change in British policy. Hitherto they had been fighting a defensive war in Europe and America.

b) Now insert the appropriate linker into the gaps.

1. I was already an old person _____ I stopped acting in that way.

2. Would you mind not questioning Pauline _______ you have studied the journal?

3. They had known each other for only three months ______ he left Brisbane.

4. She was a trifle unbalanced, perhaps even suicidal at the time. _______, she had attacked and beaten a complete stranger.

5. Не took a pencil out of his jacket and fumbled around _______ he found an old envelope.

6. He'll have to wait ______ we've finished here.

7. Floods have ruined the roads and communications. ________, they washed away the crops.

8. At this rate we'll capsize ________ we get to Rocky Isle.

9. _______ she had time to say a word, Andrew appeared.

10. She had put the phone down _______ he could press her for an answer.

11. He could authorize nothing _______ he had spoken to the new minister.

12. People always interrupted him ________ he had finished what he was trying to say.

13. Read the document carefully ________ you sign it.

14. They have recently identified the species of moth. ________ they enthusiastically expressed quite contradictory views.

15. He says he has never been in contact with him. ________, however, he claimed they were friends.

Exercise 3. Choose the correct linking word. Explain your choice.

1. It was crazy that Dad was home simultaneously/ while his wife was working.

2. She had just crept out while/meanwhile he slept.

3. Someone else fetches the horse whilst/in the meantime the owner is at work.

4. She grinned to herself as/simultaneously she lay awake in the dormitory.

5. As/while he looked at the coin, his whole expression changed.

6. The telephone began to ring as/in the meantime he unlocked the door.

7. "Did you get my letters?" — "I received one just as/meanwhile I was setting out."

8. I'll never forget those soldiers as long as/whilst I live.

9. I will be back with them as soon as I can," he promised. "Whilst/in the meantime, try to get some rest."

10. The government will manage the company until it can be dismantled or sold. Meanwhile/ In the meantime, its 28 offices will remain open.

11. Elizabeth dried her hair and changed her clothes. As long as/ Meanwhile I fiddled with the tape recorder.

12. Saute the onion and celery in a small frying pan. Simultaneously/ Meanwhile melt the margarine in a saucepan.

13. At that moment a vivid bolt of lightning flashed across the cove. While/ Simultaneously a deafening crack split the air.

14. The program uses so little of the computer's processing power that it is possible to do other things as long as/ at the same time.

Exercise 4. Transform the following time clauses into impersonal ones.

Example: When they were making records in the 1920s, sound engineers often made two recordings for safety's sake  When making records in the 1920s, sound engineers often made two recordings for safety's sake.

1. When they were lifting weights off the floor, bend your knees and keep your back straight and long.

2. After it had been colonized by Spain, Haiti was ceded to France in 1697.

3. It was certainly the best meal I had had since I left home.

4. The people will report to you before they make any major decisions.

5. The 65-year-old accepted his judgement until he heard a radio broadcast in 1988 about a similar case.

6. We decided to maximize our return on each product while we hoped our superior quality would win out.

7. Water is liquid, but when it is heated it becomes vapour and when it is frozen it is solid.

8. A man is guilty until he is proved innocent.

9. Grill for 15 to 20 minutes, turning occasionally until it is cooked.

10. On the other hand, once you have seen this apartment, who'd have the courage to complain ?

11. The full figures, when they are available, will show imports remaining at a high level.

12. We avoided one another, whenever it was possible.

13. Greenwood continued to talk daily with Fennymore while he was in Florida.

14. Once she was inside her apartment she felt an urge to brush her teeth.

15. Cover and put in a cool place until it is ready to serve.

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

1. В ожидании пока вода закипит, она еще раз заглянула в гостиную.

2. Когда закончите, Вас проводят в Вашу комнату.

3. Это случилось в тот день, когда из банка мне пришло уведомление.

4. Много воды утекло с тех пор.

5. Ему придется подождать, пока мы не закончим.

6. Внимательно прочтите инструкцию, прежде чем приступите к эксплуатации.

7. Едва она вошла, как объявили ее очередь выступать.

8. Сейчас это музей. Ранее здесь располагался его рабочий кабинет.

9. Как только поверхность высохнет, запах исчезнет.

10. Я пойду сушить волосы, а ты пока посмотри журнал.

11. Ты мне понадобишься через час, а до тех пор пока можешь отдохнуть.

1.4.CONDITION

Exercise 1. IF vs. UNLESS? Which sentences can be rewritten with if or unless and which must stay as they are?

Example: I’ll be surprised if he doesn’t have an accident soon. (cannot be rewritten)

1. Unless it's in the form of insurance, the guarantee could well be worthless.

2. It will be better if we don’t tell her anything.

3. You can have the car tonight if Harriet doesn’t need it.

4. It would have been comic unless it had been so frustrating

5. I’m going to dig the garden this afternoon if it doesn’t rain.

6. She’d look nicer if she didn’t wear so much make-up.

7. You had to be nice to him if you wanted to get on. Nobody could use the computer unless they knew the password.

8. I’ll tell you if I can’t come.

9. I wouldn't have enough to live on if the operation wasn't a success.

10. If the body had not been on the path it would have been ignored.

Exercise 2 Choose the appropriate linker.

1. Не only took her to the hospital on condition that/ if she did not say who had done this.

2. A pilot will only be hired if/ in the event that he signs a statement to say that he will accept no orders from the passenger.

3. They can go into journalism for all I care as long as/ on condition that they're happy.

4. I reluctantly agreed to a postponement in case/ on condition that the sale should be completed and the boat handed over by 31st August.

5. She'd only be happy if/ in the event of she got a thousand miles away.

6. My kind of magic works only if/ unless you keep on believing.

7. I could cook you some dinner so long as/ in the event that it's scrambled eggs. (i.e. Scrambled eggs is the only dish I am able or willing to cook for you.)

8. In the event of/ provided a foreign war or domestic agitation, what would be the resisting power of our institutions?

9. A life assurance scheme is one where, in return for a monthly payment over a specified period, you are guaranteed a sizeable payout in the event of/ as long as your death.

10. Being on patrol was the only excuse I could think of in the event of/ providing my being caught at the farmhouse.

11. We shall give you assistance in the event that/ on condition that you suffer illness, personal injury or death during the period of your holiday overseas.

12. Provided that/ when both birds are healthy I cannot see why a mating should not produce healthy chicks.

13. You will probably find this the most pleasant week of the diet provided/ only if you don’t experience a reaction to it.

14. I believe in freedom to do what I wish, providing that/ in the event that it does no harm to my neighbour.

15. Mother will believe me providing/ unless I tell her what she wants to hear.

Exercise 3. Insert assuming (that), given that, considering (that). Comment on your choice.

1. _______ the event had happened such a short time before, a surprising amount of information had already been collected. These devices were very sophisticated considering they were homemade.

2. These two basic factors must continue to apply in the future, _______ the country remains peaceful and politically stable.

3. _______ no decision is ever 100 percent right, it's how we feel about our decisions that counts.

4. _______ I convince you, you can convince Waddington in turn.

5. I don't see what I can do for you, _______you have no evidence.

6. _______ they are such an important part of undergraduate courses, lectures are often presented in a remarkably poor manner.

Exercise 4. Translate into English:

1. Проникнуть в сейф невозможно, ну, разве только если вы не знаете код.

2. Это полная чушь, если так можно выразиться.

3. Они согласились выступить с концертом, но с условием, что гонорар им выплатят заранее.

4. Если предположить, что я смогу решить эту задачку, то и Дэйвид сможет это сделать, ведь он хорошо соображает.

5. Учитывая тот факт, что вода это жидкость, то при нагревании она, естественно, будет испаряться.

6. В случае Вашего отказа, мы будем вынуждены предпринять дальнейшие меры.

7. Возьми еще одну пленку, на случай если та закончится.

8. Ладно, я присмотрю за ребенком, но только при условии, что еда для него будет приготовлена.

9. Не делай этого. В противном случае, подумай о последствиях.

10. Должно быть, у него есть запасной ключ. И если это так, то где он может его хранить.

1.5. CAUSE, EFFECT

Exercise 1. Cause and Effect prepositions with verbs.

A: Translate the sentences into English paying special attention to the prepositions.

1. Она горько плакала от горя.

2. Не волнуйся, я плачу от радости!

3. Раненые стонали от боли. (groan)

4. Он застонал от бессилия.

5. Дети визжали от смеха.

6. Когда девочка увидела тигра, она закричала от ужаса.

7. Собака скулила от боли.

8. От боли и потери крови она потеряла сознание.

9. Она дрожала от холода.

10. Она умерла от тифа в 1919, а он годом позже умер от инфаркта.

11. Многие дети умирают в Африке от голода.

12. Маленькая девочка подпрыгивала от нетерпения и от радости.

B: Fill the gaps with the following prepositions or prepositional phrases: through, thanks to, out of, from, on account of, by.

1. She suffered _________heart disease.

2. We succeeded _______ sheer hard work.

3. I think I should like to taste a piece of octopus, just _________ curiosity.

4. He felt that she was silent _________embarrassment.

5. How many days were lost ________sickness?

6. Nickel prices have rocketed, ________a record output of stainless steel.

7. ________her sheer nervousness she said a few more stupid things.

8. The explorers died ______cold before they reached the North Pole.

9. _______John we arrived 3 hours late.

10. I came to you _______desperation – you’ve got to help me.

11. ________him I was introduced to some high-up people.

12. He did it _____a sense of duty.

13. You didn’t really want that last cake, you only took it ________spite.

14. Hundreds of working days have been lost this year ________illness.

15. _________ your carelessness, those important documents have been lost.

16. I came ____interest.

17. All our water was boiled _________there being a danger of typhoid fever.

18. You had a narrow escape ________your good luck.

19. The Community Association collapsed _________lack of support.

20. Why did you do it? Was it ___________what I said yesterday?

21. _______spite, Sylvia passed on the story of the affair to the newspapers.

22. We had to move to London __________my job.

23. He died in prison _________pneumonia.

24. _________him I began to learn to trust my feelings.

25. My eyes hurt _________the wind.

26. Not all the artists’ problems can be solved _________funding.

27. The company has had a successful year, ______ mainly __ the improvement in export sales.

28. We don’t get great pleasure _________it.

29. You’re in trouble ______me already.

30. She put salt into her tea _____mistake.

Exercise 2.

A: Fill the gaps with the verbs: bring about, cause, lead to and give rise to. There are options.

1. There will be a reward for any information ……….the arrest of the robbers.

2. Education is the only method of …….. changes in world population.

3. Heavy traffic .……. long delays on the roads.

4. The President’s absence from the dinner……..speculation about his health.

5. It was a medical error that ……..the death of the patient.

6. The autopsy showed that her death was …….. liver failure.

7. Try to isolate the problems that are ……..you the most difficulty.

8. The President will support any efforts ..……… a cease-fire.

9. These chemicals may contaminate the water supply and …….cancer.

10. Two things are ………world-wide concern – mass unemployment and poverty of underdeveloped countries.

11. I believe that these large wage increases have ……most of our economic problems.

Exercise 3. Make out a proper linking device and consider the ways of translating the sentences into Russian.

A:

1. Now she understood his failure to add two and two and make the obvious four; it was _______ Simon doctoring the facts.

2. Any feeling of insecurity in the reader's mind concerning this dual interpretation of formula is not so much _______ the perversity of the author but is rather due to the dual role that the public at large expects him to play.

3. By the mid-1920s the universal result of the earlier shortage of equipment had become clear: 75 per cent of all cases of letting out land were _______ lack of adequate tools.

4. This may well have been _______ the satisfaction he had been deriving from the composition of East Coker.

5. As a port Manchester has less trade now ______ the use of larger ships and the change to trade eastwards with the EEC.

6. In 1972, _______ a technical error, MIKE OLDFIELD appeared on the NME cover six weeks in a row.

7. If, ______ unforeseen circumstances, you are unable to attend the perfor-mance booked, do let us know and we will do our best to resell your tickets.

8. But his persecutors were frustrated when they had to release him a week later, partly ______ a technical fault in the warrant for his arrest and partly _______ the influence of his friend, Sir M. Hale.

B:

1. Further changes _______ the war were introduced during May 1940: homework and Saturday morning school were cancelled, and Games were held on Friday afternoons.

2. By 15 September two Cornish reservoirs and one in Devon were also closed to the public ________ blue-green algae.

3. The above entertainment came off on Friday 15^th but _________ the inclemency of the weather the audience was very small.

4. ________ national budgetary complications arising from Czechoslovakia's split into two nations on 1 January, 1993, this long awaited tax law could be delayed by up to six months.

5. A big loss was suffered on the course in 1975 when 40 elm trees were felled at a cost of £1,400 ________ Dutch Elm Disease.

6. __________ the noise a drill makes, ear protection is necessary.

C:

1. At thirty-five, Leon Gusev had reached colonel's rank ________ his excellent work with agitators in the Baltic Republics.

2. James Howe attended the village school in Skirling but left still young and incompletely educated _________ his deafness.

3. At this period relations between Persia and Britain were worsening _________ Afghanistan.

4. Runnymede offered a most appropriate site for such a memorial ________ its historical associations and its closeness to London and Heathrow.

5. In certain quarters the members of the club were known as `the Black Shorts' ________ their surfing costumes.

D:

1. The former First Deputy Prime Minister claimed that he had not opposed Ceausescu ________ being dismissed.

2. Even now she’s frightened to be seen on television __________ reprisals.

3. Reserve officials have also been covering up the scale of the problem ________ being accused of failing in their duties.

4. The common mistake is that people are afraid to pull too hard ________ breaking something

5. They are heavily fortified __________ terrorist attack.

6. At this stage, more girls drop out ___________ retributions.

E:

1. It led to a dialogue with Montefiore, with my telling him about my friend who has had AIDS now for six years and who, _________ AZT, is still alive.

2. Most of it happened _________ tireless negotiations with opera houses, TV crews and recording componies in the west.

3. They discovered how useful honey was in treatment of wounds and it was _________ people’s participation that the best way of applying it to particular kinds of wounds were developed

4. The complex life of the wild gladiolus is a little nearer to being understood ________ the efforts of Jon Stokes, a botanist.

5. Hundreds of children enjoyed a sunny day out by the sea yesterday, _________ the kindness of 300 drivers who gave their time to transport the youngsters.

6. All that activity helped the youngsters work up an appetite, which was satisfied __________ food and sweets provided by McDonalds.

Exercise 4. BECAUSE OF vs. AS A RESULT OF. Underline the one that sounds more logically and grammarwise correct.

1. The home team scored in the last minute as a result of/because of an error by the opposing goalkeeper.

2. I was made redundant as a result of/because of company reorganisation.

3. Because of/As a result of the opposing team’s superior attacking skills, we worked out a clever defensive plan.

4. Sea-level may rise as a result of/because of global warming.

5. Governments may take measures to limit CO₂ emissions because of/as a result of the dangers of global warming.

6. I get depressed as a result of/because of all the unhappiness in the world.

7. We are getting a 10 per cent pay rise because of/as a result of the recent wage agreement.

8. As a result of/because of eating well, she soon regained her strength.

9. As a result of/because of the excellent food at the hotel she booked a holiday there for the following year.

10. Why did you decide to leave the company? Because of/As a result of new management policies which I totally disagreed with.

11. Joe met his wife as a result of/because of an advertisement he inserted in a newspaper.

Exercise 5. SINCE / BECAUSE / AS. Underline the best answers and explain your choice. Sometimes both forms are possible.

1. John, as/because you speak French, I wondered if I could ask you some words?

2. We have a surprise for you because/as you have helped us so often, and for so many years we’d like to give you a present.

3. Since/as everyone is here, we can begin the meeting.

4. Because/since we were young and inexperienced, we made a lot of mistakes.

5. Please allow Johnny to leave school fifteen minutes early, as/because he has a dentist’s appointment.

6. I will tell you why she lost her job! She was dismissed since/because she was lazy and inefficient!

7. ”Why do you love me?” – “I love you as/because you understand me.”

8. I failed in the exam precisely as/because I didn’t have time to study.

9. I asked the question “Who will pay?” merely as/because we have received no financial details at all.

10. Following our letter of the 16^th April, since/because we have not heard from you, we assume that you have no objections to the proposal that was made to you.

11. Some people believe that Mozart died because/since he was poisoned.

Exercise 6. THUS vs. AND THUS. Link the messages below so that it makes sense.

1. The government intends to reduce taxes / it wants to increase its popularity.

2. There had been riots in the streets / the army decided to take control.

3. The police fired tear gas / they managed to disperse the protesters.

4. The government has announced a programme of reform / it will improve social benefits for the poor.

5. The health minister claimed that great progress has been made / 240 new hospitals have been built.

6. The opposition parties voted against the proposal / they meant to prevent it from becoming law.

7. The new minister, Mrs. Durass, is energetic / she will probably adopt new policies.

8. Underground Railroad was one of the greatest forces which brought on the Civil War / it destroyed slavery.

9. The President is very unpopular / his resignation didn’t come as a surprise.

10. Our souls are immortal because they are not made of matter / they are indestructible.

Exercise 8. HENCE vs. CONSEQUENTLY. Rewrite the sentences so that they sound more formal.

1. Several teachers are ill, so the school will be closed until further notice.

2. The ship suffered damage in a storm, so it had to go into port for repairs.

3. There is no evidence of damage to the door, so the thieves must have entered the building through the window.

4. Over 90 per cent of out patients improved after taking the drug, so the drug can be regarded as an effective treatment for the disease.

5. The temperature in Saudi Arabia can reach 50 degrees Celsius, so a lot of business is done early in the day.

6. The soldiers in the Pacifican Army were poorly paid; so morale was extremely low.

7. Calcium hydroxide is an alkali, so it reacts with acids to form a salt plus water.

8. The bank refused to help the company, so it went bankrupt.

9. There is no defect in the fuel system of the car, so the fault appears to lie with the electrical system.

Exercise 9. Choose and underline the best answer in the sentences below.

1. Poachers shoot elephants for their ivory. Consequently/Because the number of elephants is decreasing.

2. John copies the answers from his brother and hence/thus achieves good marks.

3. I’ll be out all day so/hence I’ll leave your lunch in the oven.

4. Mr. Cox is ill and will therefore/since be unable to lecture today.

5. There is no record of his transaction on our files. As/Thus, there is no proof that the transaction ever took place.

6. Temperatures are likely to fall as/consequently cold weather is moving in from the north.

7. Lisa is getting married: so/hence the ring on her finger.

8. The costs of producing the magazine have risen steadily. We are therefore/hence raising the subscription to twenty dollars for four issues.

9. Benjamin Roe has ambitions to become the world’s leading newspaper proprietor: hence/consequently his purchase of the New York Globe.

10. Since/Hence the three sides of the triangle are equal in length, each of the angles must also be equal.

Exercise 10. CAUSE and EFFECT. Complete the newspaper report and the letter below.

1. (report in the Pudston Gazette)

Residents of Pudston are angry ________¹ the local council are planning to close Pudston library. The decision to close has been taken ² financial savings can be made.

“ ³ Pudston library is the least used of all the libraries in the region, this was the obvious target,” said Council Chairman Bloggs. But Pudston people say this is unfair, ⁴ the lack of use is ⁵ limited opening hours. “It’s true that we don’t use the library much,” said one, “but that’s just ⁶ it’s never open at times people can go there. It’s only open on Thursday mornings for two hours, _⁷ how can people use it?”

2. (letter to the editor of the Pudston Gazette)

Dear Sir,

It is time for Pudstonians to unite so that our voices may be heard. ______ ⁸ everyone in Pudston knows the importance of the library service, I urge all readers to protest to Chairman Bloggs. Our library is in danger just ⁹ we have kept silent for too long. Now is the time to act. Mr. Bloggs is due to visit Pudston next week. ¹⁰ he is giving a speech at Pudston school, let us all gather outside and tell him what we think of his plans.

Exercise 11. A: Join the ideas below a) to imply that the listener already knows the reason; b) to draw the listener’s attention to the cause of the action; c) to focus on the consequence of the action or deductive reasoning when possible.

1. Liz and Colin are having a party / they have got engaged.

2. This is the tourist season / accommodation may be expensive.

3. She wanted to read Dante in the original language / she learnt Italian.

4. I am not going to the disco / I don’t like disco music.

5. You know what is in the letter / I won’t read it to you.

6. Business is booming at the Savemart / the owners plan to open another branch further downtown.

7. I wasn’t present when the accident happened / you can’t blame me.

8. Meg is really angry / she hasn’t been invited to the wedding.

9. Jim had won 50 pounds in a lottery / he bought drinks for everybody.

10. I was hungry / I ate a sandwich.

11. Everybody says Woody Allen’s latest film is good / I think I’ll go and see it.

12. The departure was approaching / All of us were very excited.

13. The excitement will be great / Nobody will be able to sleep.

14. Mr. Crosby liked Morocco very much when he first went there / He wants to go back.

15. This new album of Sting sounds exciting / We are thinking of buying it.

16. My wife coughed a lot last night / She’s thinking of giving up smoking.

17. When I read “The Lord of the Rings” I found it extremely well written / I decided I would read it again one day.

B: Compare your opinions about the ideas below with those of other people in the group and be prepared to justify them, giving reasons.

1. The institution of marriage inevitably causes frustration in relationships.

2. Most of the problems of adolescents are due to the influence of parents.

3. The increase of crime is a direct result of insufficiently severe punishment.

4. The enormous amount of money now invested in popular sports is responsible for the erosion of traditional sporting ethics.

5. Unemployment, and consequently despair about the future, is the main reason why young people turn to drugs.

1.6. PURPOSE

Exercise 1. Find out if the infinitive clauses in the sentences below are clauses of purpose; and replace to by so as to or in order to where possible:

1. The Minister continued to address his audience.

2. The Minister stopped to address the bystanders.

3. I wanted to ask him a question.

4. I waited to ask him a question.

5. She passed all that morning in automatic acts, picking up a novel only to lay it down.

6. He invited me to keep me happy.

7. He invited me to come to his office.

8. He left us to catch his plane.

9. He left us to go our own way.

10. He encouraged us to win our support.

11. He encouraged us to visit him again.

12. He came to see that they had already gone.

Exercise 2. Complete the following purpose clauses with a suitable linking expression. Note that some sentences can be made without using any connector.

1. A stranger in the crowd had hoisted Phillip up on the shoulder ______ he might see the procession depart.

2. A cockscrew is a tool _____ opening bottles.

3. She caught his eye and they looked away from each other _______ not to laugh.

4. She left the door unlocked _______ him to get in later.

5. Governments need to create employment ______ both parents and children feel that they are part of society and can contribute towards it.

6. He dyed his beard ______ avoid being recognized.

7. Recently, many people have changed their names ______ to make a statement about their ethnic identity.

8. Any holes and openings should be fenced ______ people can’t fall down them.

9. There were no carpets _______ not to attract dust.

10. The superintendent was busy stationing his men round the house ______ the ever-increasing spectators shouldn’t get too close.

11. The desks are kept some distance apart _______ to prevent cheating.

12. I don’t let him climb trees ______ he tears his trousers.

13. He wrote his diary in code ______ prevent his wife from reading it.

Exercise 3. Make sentences, linking the openings on the left with the conclusions on the right. Use the linking expressions in the middle (each expression once only). Note that some sentences can be made without using any linking expression.

Exercise 4.

A.Complete the following purpose clauses.

13. Betty put on some disco music so that…

14. Take notes so as to ...

15. She is learning Spanish so that…

16. Governments should take measures in order that…

17. I left quietly so as not to…

18. He must consume 2250 calories daily in order not to…

19. My daughter has taken a job after school so that…

20. A man in a gold suit and a top hat hurried forward to…

21. You need to be firm and assertive so that…

22. She wound the windows open so that…

B. How can you begin the following sentences?

1. …in order that I might find the men at home.

2. …so as not to frighten it.

3. …so that his father could listen to his chest.

4. …so that she will become a doctor.

5. … in order to exist in the bureaucratic world.

6. …so that no problems arise later.

7. … in order for your body to create warmth.

8. … so that she wouldn’t be disturbed.

9. …so as to see her better.

10. … so that he won’t oversleep.

Exercise 5. Translate the following purpose clauses into English.

1. Они встали очень рано, чтобы добраться до вершины холма к рассвету.

2. Он оставил ружье за дверью, чтобы не испугать свою жену.

3. Эта полка для моих дисков.

4. Он вбежал в горящий дом, чтобы спасти ребенка.

5. Чтобы успешно заниматься научной работой, студентам необходимы умения находить информацию, использовать ее и подходить ко всему творчески.

6. Она говорила шепотом, чтобы ее никто не услышал.

7. Они эвакуировали людей из здания на случай, если обрушится стена.

8. Он даже сменил имя, чтобы избежать преследования.

9. Он читал понемножку каждый день, чтобы не уставали глаза.

10. Они отталкивали друг друга, чтобы пробиться вперед.

CAUSE, RESULT AND PURPOSE

Exercise 6. SO THAT vs. BECAUSE. Make up as many meaningful sentences as you can.

Example:a) Dave is driving fast so that he will arrive on time.

Exercise 7. SO vs. SO THAT. Complete the sentences with so before a result and so that before a purpose.

1. a) Harold has gone to Italy he can’t deal with your inquiry.

b) Harold has gone to Italy he can meet some industrialists.

2. a) Tim bought a large house __ his parents could come and live with him. .

b) Tim bought a large house __ he had no money to spend on a car.

3. a) Mary got a bicycle she doesn’t need to use her car so much now.

b)Mary got a bicycle she wouldn’t have to use her car so much.

4. a)The company is giving a prize ______ it should get good publicity.

b)The company is giving a prize, _______ we should try to win it.

Exercise 8. Which of the dependent clauses below express (a) purpose, and which express (b) result? Why?

1.The police used a loud-hailer so that everyone in the building heard them.

2. They used a loud-hailer so that everyone could hear them.

3. So that everyone could hear, they used a loud-hailer.

4. We planted hundreds of roses, so that the garden should look beautiful at the time of the wedding.

5. We watered the garden thoroughly, so that it smelt fresh when the guests arrived.

6. Не arranged for the taxi to come at six so that she would not have to wait long at the station.

7. Eat small portions so that your digestive system is not overloaded.

8. The teachers did revision exercises so that the students were prepared for the test.

9. Miss May took the little girls out of the house so that they might not hear their mother screaming.

10. She put down her glass in order that it should not reveal how her hand was shaking.

Exercise 9. Translate the following sentences into English paying attention to the difference between purpose and result clauses.

1. Я надел свитер, так что я не замерзну.

2. Мы приехали в аэропорт рано, чтобы дети могли посмотреть на самолеты.

3. Она работала очень усердно, чтобы все было готово к их приезду.

4. Ветер уносил ее слова, так что ничего не было слышно на другом конце двора.

5. Он посещал вечернюю школу и учился стенографировать, так что в 16 лет он уже был одним из лучших служащих в офисе.

6. Я даю тебе карту, чтобы ты не потерялся.

7. Он плохо говорит по-английски, так что я общался с ним через переводчика.

8. Она отвернулась, чтобы он не мог видеть слез на ее лице.

9. Он продал дом, чтобы мы жили в лучших условиях.

10. Я предупредил ее, что ты задержишься, так что она не будет волноваться.

1.7. RELATIVES

Exercise 1. Fill in the correct relative pronoun or adverb.

1. When did you buy the jacket ____ you are wearing?

2. Is that the girl ______ sent you a Valentine’s card?

3. The reason ____ John is successful is that he works very hard.

4. Sam is mending the chair _______ he broke yesterday.

5. This is the town ____ my favourite singer lives.

6. I’ll never forget the time ____ she fell into the swimming pool.

7. Where are the children _______ ball broke our window?

8. What did you do with the money ______ I gave you?

9. Is this the place _______ you lost your grammar textbook?

10. English is a flexible language to learn, ______ was the main reason to choose it.

Exercise 2. Fill in the correct relative pronoun or adverb. Say in which sentences it can be omitted and in which it cannot.

A) The book ____ I borrowed from the library was about a girl______ works in Africa_____ there are many people starving. It’s a very sad story.

B) John is a man ____ ambition is to be rich. That’s the reason _____he works so hard. He doesn’t listen to people _____ tell him to slow down. The day ______ he becomes a millionaire will be the day _____ he has a rest.

C) Home is the place I like best. I’m a person ______ needs time to myself. The thing _____ I most like to do is relax in my living room, ______ I am free from stress and ______there are no interruptions.

D) The moment _____ I met Peter is a moment I’ll always remember. He’s someone _____ I’ll always admire for his courage, _____ has seen him through some difficult times. That’s the reason ______ I liked him straight away and ______ we became good friends ______ understand and respect each other.

Exercise 3. Put in which, what or that.

1. He spoke very fast, ____made it hard to understand him.

2. Thanks, but that's not ____I wanted.

3. I'll tell you something ____will surprise you.

4. I did ____I could.

5. I did everything ____I could.

6. She kept falling over ____made everybody laugh.

7. He's a university professor, ____is hard to believe.

8. You can have anything ____you want.

9. Her sense of humour - that's ___attracts people to her.

10. He said nothing ____made sense.

Exercise 4. Join each item from column A to the corresponding one from column B using which.

Example: 1-g I knew you would be hungry which is why I bought some sandwiches.

A) B)

1. It’s very cold today. a) This was very kind of him.

2. They got stuck in a traffic jam. b) That’s why the river burst its banks.

3. He gave me a present. c) That’s how I knew about the party.

4. I forgot to go to the bank. d) This made them late for work.

5. It rained a lot yesterday. e) It meant I couldn’t go shopping.

6. She sent me an invitation. f) That’s why I’m wearing a jumper.

Exercise 5. a) Say which type of relative clause each of the following pairs of sentences contains and what the difference in meaning is:

1. A) I took my jacket to the dry cleaner's, which had a two hour service; B) I took my jacket to the dry cleaner's which had a two hour service.

2. A) Commuters who had heard about the derailment arranged alternative transport home; B) Commuters, who had heard about the derailment, arranged alternative transport home.

3. A) The cars, whose owners had double-parked, were towed away by the police; B) The cars whose owners had double-parked were towed away by the police.

b) Punctuate the following sentences according to whether they contain defining (identifying) or non-defining (non-identifying) clauses. Sometimes the same clause can be both types, but with a different meaning.

1. My wife who works as a journalist is an excellent cook.

2. My daughter who works in New York is getting married soon.

3. The engagement which was announced last week came as a bit of a shock.

4. The man she’s getting married to is an artist.

5. It doesn’t seem to me that artists are the kind of people who can be relied on to provide an income.

6. Artists who are unproductive are not much use to anyone.

7. My daughter has been married once before which means she should know what she’s doing.

8. Her previous marriage which ended in divorce was to a Spaniard.

9. Her parents-in-law who were always exceptionally kind were very upset when the marriage broke down.

10. The children who spoke Spanish went to live with their father after the divorce.

Exercise 6. Fill in the relative pronoun or adverb. Put commas where necessary. Say whether the relative clauses are identifying or non-identifying and whether the relative can be omitted or not.

1. Paul _____ birthday is on Friday is having a party tonight.

2. My office _______ is very big is on the first floor.

3. Martin ______ works in the library writes poetry in his spare time.

4. That’s the woman _____ house was burgled last week.

5. The day _____I left school was hot and sunny.

6. Sarah Jones ______ I knew at university is a doctor now.

7. The CD ______ I bought yesterday was awful.

8. Tina _______ lives next door is a wonderful cook.

9. People ______ play musical instrument are called musicians.

10. This is the reason _______ I haven’t finished.

11. My friend Peter ______ has just moved to Wales sent me a long letter.

12. My boss _______ office is next to mine is on holiday at the moment.

13. My favourite time of the year is summer ________ I can have a holiday.

14. The woman _______ won the lottery gave an interview to the newspaper.

Exercise 7. a) Combine the sentences to make one new sentence, including a defining relative clause. Make any necessary changes, and omit the relative pronoun if possible.

1. The bus goes up Edward Avenue. It doesn't stop at the railway station.

2. The debate went on all night. The backbenchers had demanded it.

3. The escaped convicts stashed away the gold bars. They had stolen the gold in an earlier bank raid.

4. It was her dream cottage! She had always wanted one like that.

5. They booked into the hotel. They had stayed there on their honeymoon.

6. The bodyguards were flanking the King. They had revolvers concealed inside their jackets.

7. It wasn't their dog. No, I was taking care of their cat.

8. The tree had died. They cut it down.

9. That's the cruise. I've always wanted to go on that one. 10 I think it was the manager. I was speaking to him.

b) Join the following sentences using the appropriate relative.

1. This is the motorbike. I repaired it myself.

2. Mr Smith owns a company. He’s a successful businessman.

3. I’m afraid of water. That’s why I never swim in the sea.

4. The boy broke the window. He said he was sorry.

5. Paris is the city. The French built it for the world. London is the city. The English built it for themselves.

6. The best time to go shopping is in the morning. The shops are not busy then.

7. He lent me some money. That was very kind of him.

8. Michael lives next door to me. He is an architect.

9. This is the suit. I bought it last week. It doesn’t fit me.

10. A cynic is a person. He knows the price of everything and the value of nothing. (O. Wilde).

11. Growling in the corner were two big dogs. They both looked extremely dangerous.

12. The manager called in my new colleagues. I had met one or two of them already.

13. There were several large holes in the road. Three of them had to be repaired urgently.

14. There were some vegetables left over. I was able to use a few of them in some soup for supper.

15. The lectures were attended by over two hundred students. Few of them completed the assignments set by the professor.

16. The researchers reported back on the questionnaires. The most interesting ones showed a marked change in leisure habits among older people.

17. The woman lives next door. She bought an Old English sheepdog. It barks all night.

18. We rented a cottage from a man. He has written a novel. The novel has become a bestseller.

19. The zoo's most famous giant panda has died. Its name was Chi-Chi.

20. I told you about a record. The record will be released next week. It has been produced by a completely new method.

Exercise 8. a) In the following sentences there are mistakes in the relative clauses. Find them and correct.

1. A man to whom I was talking to recently told me a joke, which was very funny, but that I have unfortunately forgotten.

2. Our director for who’s job I applied when the previous director left, has announced that the pay rise, which we asked for, has had to be postponed, that really upset us.

3. The actress Joan Kelly whose most famous film was One for the Road for that she won an Oscar award, has died at the age of 77 at her home in California, in which she had lived for the last 25 years.

4. This morning, I got a cheque in the post that I wasn’t expecting, for some work, which I did a long time ago, translating business texts.

5. Lord Brown on whom many people look as the best prime minister of the century and who’s memoirs that were published last year caused a scandal, got married to a woman, who he first met 55 years ago, when they were at school together.

b) Correct the sentences if necessary. Tick any which are already correct.

1. There's the woman who she sold me the oranges.

2. This is my brother, who's wife's French.

3. Did you ever meet the model who's married Jeff’s cousin?

4. I don't like people which talk too loudly.

5. That's the car whose brakes are being repaired.

6. I know a little tavern at where you can get a wonderful meal.

7. Do you understand what he said?

8. I suppose that's the house where we'll have to stay in.

9. Could we arrange a time when we'll both be free?

10. I'm afraid I haven't sent exactly what he asked for.

11. That I can't stand is queuing in the rain.

12. Have you any idea to whom I'll be speaking to?

13. Is that the school which you studied?

14. He'll show the new students which to do.

15. You'd better tell me the reason for he didn't turn up.

16. That's the old chap whom you met at the bus-stop last week, isn't it?

17. That was the day when I mislaid my passport.

18. What he told you is hopelessly inaccurate.

Exercise 2. Join the sentences together into one sentence using WH-CLAUSES or THAT- CLAUSES.

Example: Не saw something. He didn't like it.  He didn't like what he saw.

1) I'll do something or other, and it will be well thought out. Whatever.....................................................................................

2) It must be Pete's brother! This suddenly dawned on me.

It..................................................................................................

3) What are we looking for? We don't know.

We...........................................................................

4) This man is your brother. We are certain of it.

We................................................................................................

5)Something or other was going on in the investigation; he felt he was closer to it than he had been before.

He...............................................................................................

6) Improved breathing would bring better co-ordination. This was the vital factor.

The..............................................................................................

7) Why should they wish to look like that appalling man? It's beyond me. It's...............................................................................................

8) We have 28 professionals. You can't run away from that fact. You..............................................................................................

9) The document has been wrongly dated and ought to read 1932 instead of 1931. This is clear from the contents.

From............................................................................................

10) Someone said history repeats itself first as tragedy, then as farce.

They were right.

Whoever.......................................................................................

11) I am going to say something. Please listen carefully.

Please..........................................................................................

12) Who does it belong to? That's something they are still arguing over. They"....;.......................................................................................

13) Whose money is it? That doesn't matter!

It ...............................................................................

14) How should we handle this? Let's talk about it.

Let's............................................................................................

Exercise 9. Translate into Russian:

1. Вилы это инструмент, предназначенный для уборки сена и соломы.

2. Я знаю одного человека, который работает юристом и хорошо знаком с этой системой..

3. Помнишь, когда мы впервые познакомились.

4. Она провалила сессию, что очень расстроило ее родителей.

5. Мне хочется поехать куда-нибудь, где природа еще осталась нетронутой.

6. Фильм, который я так хотел посмотреть, оказался скучным.

7. Женщина, с которой ты вчера разговаривала, работает в больнице для неизлечимых больных.

8. Это кольцо – подарок моего мужа в день свадьбы, что очень ценно для меня.

9. Это то самое кафе, куда мы любили заглядывать, когда были студентами.

10. Не ошибается тот, кто ничего не делает (посл.).

1.8. DISCOURSE MARKERS

“MAIN POINT” MARKERS

Exercise 1. In the passages below, underline the sentences which could begin with ANYWAY / ANYHOW / IN ANY CASE / AT ANY RATE.

1. I’m not going to the party, I don’t like parties much. I’m too tired. I’ll probably just stay at home and watch TV tonight.

2. We are confident that our equipment will provide years of useful service. We have thousands of satisfied customers all over the world. If a fault should develop, we guarantee that our engineers will carry out immediate repairs, free of charge.

3. Both Adams (1974) and Bentley (1991) found that language learning improved when the audio-tactile method was used. Conzales (1985) also reported some success with this approach. It appears that the technique will play a part in language teaching in future. Nevertheless, further research is needed to determine how it can be used most effectively.

4. Alice phoned the office. She says she isn’t feeling well. She thinks it might be flu. She won’t be at work today.

5. We’d better go now. We’ve got a lot of work to do tomorrow. It ‘s getting late. If we don’t go now we’ll miss the last bus.

6. We cut all scenes of sex and violence. It is against our religion. It's bad for the children.

Exercise 2. Choose between ANYWAY and THE THING IS in the conversations below.

1. A. Are you doing anything this weekend?

2. No, nothing special.

1. Anyway,/ The thing is, I’m having some friends round for dinner. Would you like to come?

2. A. Louise looks very happy today.

В. Haven’t you heard? She and Harry are getting married.

A. That’s nice. They’ve been friends for ages. Maybe she told Harry it was now or never.

В. Maybe so. Anyway / The thing is, they’ve finally made the decision.

3. A. Did Paolo get the job he applied for?

В. No. I thought he had a good chance of getting it. Maybe they thought he was too old. Anyway, / The thing is, he didn’t get it.

4. A. I hear Marie passed her biology exams.

В. She had no problems at all. Anyway, / The thing is, she has such a good memory, she just needs to look at a diagram once and she remembers it.

5. A. What do yon think of Joe Glenn’s paintings?

В. Not much. Anyway, / The thing is, he has simply no idea about colour.

6. I thought it was best to warn him. Anyway, / The thing is, Cheryl wanted him to know.

“EXTRA POINT” MARKERS

Exercise 3. Read the sentences below and decide on a suitable order (more than one may be possible). Before which sentence would you put the linker (BY THE WAY or INCIDENTALLY)?

1. (a) Four of them were absent.

(b) It seems George Michael is their favourite singer.

(c) I did a survey of the students in the class today.

2. (a) Have you seen her recently?

(b) She says she’s enjoying her holiday.

(c)I got a postcard from Lisa McDonald this morning.

3. (a) Twenty-eight new students enrolled today.

2. (b) A lot of them seem to be from Eastern Europe.

3. (c) We’ll divide them into two groups, OK?

4. (a) The opening ceremony is on TV.

2. (b) The Olympic Games start tomorrow.

3. (c) How many medals did we get last time?

5. (a) Do please clean everything up after you.

(b) It’s your turn for the sauna tonight.

(c) It’s reserved for you from eight till nine thirty.

Exercise 4. Mixed ‘main point’ and ‘extra point’ forms. Insert a suitable linker in the passages and conversations below.

1. – Are you coming to the lecture this evening?

- Yes, I expect so. By the way, how long is it supposed to last?

2. The report from the committee suggests that the tax on petrol should not be introduced. Such an increase would be harmful to industry. ___________ it would be unfair to motorists living in rural areas.

3. The latest news is that Thomson has recovered from his injury and will play for Rovers tonight. ____________, new figures show that Thomson was the highest-paid player in the league last season.

4. Chris, you couldn’t by any chance lend me $10 till tomorrow, could you? ____________, I forgot to go to the bank this morning.

5. – Are you getting time off from work to play in the competition?

- I haven’t asked for time off. My boss wouldn’t be keen on the idea. _____________, the competition doesn’t start till 6 p.m., so there shouldn’t be any problem.

6. It was a good result for Vampyra, the Transylvanian athlete, who won the silver medal in the 5,000 metres. ____________, that was Transylvania’s first medal in these games.

7. – I hear that Charles and his wife are separating.

- Well, that shouldn’t surprise anyone. ____________, they haven’t been getting on well for years.

8. –So, are you off to do your shopping now?

- Yes, I’ve got a lot to do. ___________, could you possibly give me a lift into town if you’re going that way? I didn’t bring my car this morning.

EXEMPLIFICATION AND SUMMATION

Exercise 5. Proofread the sentences if they are linkerwise incorrect.

1. Pacifica has devalued its currency. For example, it will be easier for Pacifica to sell its goods abroad.

2. As Diana’s manager, I have to say that she is not at all reliable. For instance, she arrived an hour late yesterday.

3. New technology can lead to a loss of jobs. E.g. a lot of jobs have disappeared through the use of computers.

4. Your essay is excellent. For example, it’s the best essay I have read this year.

5. If you receive the document, please send me a copy as quickly as possible. For example, you could send one by fax.

6. It’s no use complaining about the job. Nobody would listen to me. For example, I’m starting a new job next month.

Exercise 6. ALL IN ALL / IN SHORT / IN A WORD. How could you sum up the ideas in B? Or find a good umbrella nomination for them in A?

A:

1. our tour of Australia was a disaster;

2. she is the best person for the job;

3. a consumerist worldview.

4. anything challenging.

5. he had a miserable childhood;

6. it will cost thousands of pounds to put the house in order;

7. oppressor and oppressed stood in constant opposition to one another,

8. the company’s prospects for the coming year are excellent;

9. his professionalism as a man in arms;

10. the majority of readers now are scholars (whether students or professional academics);

11. a wealth of activities;

B:

1. Elizabeth is experienced, good at communicating and highly qualified.

2. Our best players had to go home because of injury and we lost every match;

3. Our profits are up, our order book is full, and we have first-class managers;

4. What it has created is a reformulation of consumerism that transforms all the public mass media and their contents into opportunities to sell ideas, values, products;

5. the reading public as a whole is shrinking, literature is increasingly relegated to the schools as something to be studied;

6. Try tennis, badminton or windsurfing;

7. His father beat him, his mother died young, and he hated his school;

8. The roof leaks, the window frames are rotten and there is no electricity;

9. Robert Bruce’s, king of Scots, successes against the English stemmed from his military qualities, his understanding of his men, his appreciation of the tactics required for victory;

10. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guildmaster and journeymen stood in constant opposition to one another.

11. There are quizzes, travel reports, documentary, features, interviews, cartoons, game shows, music songs, comedy.

Exercise 7. Mixed “exemplification and summation” forms.

FOR EXAMPLE / FOR INSTANCE vs. ALL IN ALL / IN SHORT? Decide on a suitable order of the sentences below.

1. (a) You could learn ten new words every day.

(b) There are various steps you could take to improve your English.

2.(a) We couldn’t do without her.

(b) She’s efficient, a good organiser and good at handling people.

3. (a) A few mammals have characteristics of birds and reptiles.

(b) The duck-billed platypus lays eggs.

4. (a) Sea City is hot, ugly, smelly and violent.

(b) It’s a place to avoid.

5. (a) Some of the expressions taught in books are old-fashioned.

(b) You are unlikely to hear anyone in England say ‘It’s raining cats and dogs’.

CLARIFICATION:

namely, i.e., for example / e.g., such as, including, especially

Exercise 8. Insert NAMELY vs. I. E. in the sentences below. Translate into Russian.

1. The Prime Minister was educated at one of the most famous public schools in England, Eton.

2. She dedicated her last book to ‘Dear Bill, who made it all possible’, the cousin who had helped her when she was a young writer.

3. The competition to stage the Olympics was closely fought between two great Latin American cities, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro.

4. There was one make of computer, which seemed to offer particularly good value for money on the basis of our tests, the Tranox 486.

5. For his birthday Tom received a pair of blue and white woollen socks knitted by his aunt, a present he had no use for whatsoever.

6. There was only one person who was against the idea, myself.

3. There may be other planets in the universe like Earth, planets with oxygen and water.

4. Surely I already know what the contents of our contract are: that I am to work for you for a period of 18 months, after which time you will release me with my debt to you cancelled.

5. Shareholders drew their own conclusions: that it was time to sell out.

6. It would be helpful to consider what Dr. Slabbert said at the conference in Johannesburg on August 2, 1991, that the Department of National Health has the capacity to deal with major health problems.

7. This shows how little they were aware of the challenge facing them – to re-establish prosperity and the rule of law.

Exercise 9. Choose suitable forms to complete the passage below. Note that punctuation is sometimes important in choosing an answer.

In the twenty-first century, we shall see a great increase in the use of alternative energy sources, ¹especially / such as wind and water power. Several states in the USA already use wind power, ²for example/namely California, where huge “wind farms’ have been constructed ³i.e. / e.g. power stations consisting of many windmills linked together in series). Water power, too, is already an important source of electricity in countries with plentiful rivers and lakes ⁴such as/for example Norway.