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b)English compounds have a two-stem pattern, with the exception of compound words which have form-word stems in their structure, e.g. middle-of-the-road, off-the-record.

II.Ways of Forming Compound Words

English compounds can be formed not only by means of composition but also by means of:

a)reduplication: too-too – sentimental;

b)partial conversion from word-groups: to micky-mouse, can-do;

c)back formation from compound nouns or word-groups: to fingerprint (fingerprinting), to baby-sit (baby-sitter);

d)analogy: lie-in (on the analogy with sit-in);

e)contrast: brain-gain (in contrast to brain-drain).

III.Classification of English Compounds

1.According to the parts of speech compounds are subdivided into:

a)nouns: baby-moon;

b)adjectives: power-happy;

c)adverbs: headfirst;

d)prepositions: into, within;

e)numerals: fifty-five.

2.According to the way components are joined together compounds are subdivided into:

a)neutral, which are formed by joining together two stems without any joining morpheme: ball-point;

b)morphological where components are joined by a linking element: astrospace, handicraft, sportsman;

c)syntactical where components are joined by means of form-word stems, e.g. do-or-die.

3.According to their structure compounds are subdivided into:

a)compound words proper which consist of two stems: to job-hunt, trainsick;

b)compound-affixed words, where besides the stems we have affixes: earminded, hydro-skimmer, astrophysical;

c)compound words consisting of three or more stems: cornflower-blue, singer-songwriter;

d)compound-shortened words, e.g. V-day, Eurodollar, Camford.

4.According to the relations between the components compounds are subdivided into:

a)subordinative compounds where one of the components is the semantic centre and the structural centre and the second component is subordinate: honey-sweet, gold-rich, love-sick, Tom-cat;

b)coordinative compounds where both components are semantically independent. Here belong such compounds when one person (object) has two functions. Such compounds are called additive: Anglo-Saxon, woman-doctor. There are also tautological compounds. They are formed by means of reduplication: no-no, fifty-fifty or with the help of rhythmic stems: criss-cross, walkie-talkie.

5.According to the meaning of the whole compound we can point out idiomatic and non-idiomatic compounds. Idiomatic compounds are very different in meaning from the corresponding free phrase: a blackboard is quite different from a black board. Non-idiomatic compounds are not different in their meaning from corresponding free phrases: airmail, speedometer.

IV. Conversion

Conversion is a characteristic feature of the English word-building system. It is also called affixless derivation or zero suffuxation. Conversion is the main way of forming verbs in Modern English. Verbs can be formed from nouns of different semantic groups and have different meanings because of that.:

a)verbs can have instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting parts of a human body, tools, machines, instruments, weapons: to eye, to hammer, to machine-gun, ti rifle;

b)verbs can denote an action characteristic of the living being: to crowd, to wolf, to ape;

c)verbs can denote acquisition, addition, deprivation: to fish, to dust, to paper;

d)verbs can denote an action performed at the place: to park, to bottle, to

corner.

Verbs can be converted from adjectives, in such cases they denote the change of the state: to tame, to slim.

Verbs can be also converted from other parts of speech: to down (adverb), to pooh-pooh (interjection).

Nouns can also be converted from verbs. Converted nouns can denote:

a)instant of an action: a jump, a move;

b)process or state: sleep, walk;

c)agent of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted: a help, a flirt;

d)object or result of the action: a find, a burn;

e)place of the action: a drive, a stop.

Sometimes nouns are formed from adverbs: ups and downs.

V. Disputable Cases of Word-Formation

There exist syntagmaswhich are intermediate between compounds and wordcombinations: complexes of the “give up”, “stone wall” and “mother-in-law” type.

1)Complexes of the “give up” type are highly productive. The first component is a simple verb. The status of the second one is disputable: an adverb, a postpositive, etc. The units are often polysemantic and idiomatic: come off (to take place), fall out (to quarrel). They are more colloquial than thier synonyms of Romance origin: give up (abandon).

2)Complexes of the “ stone wall ” type are very productive in bookish style: office management, steel production. The second element is a noun. The status of the first one is disputable: an adjective, a noun, a noun-stem. The units are motivated and correlate with prepositional phrases. his life story – the story of his life. their spelling is inconsistent: haircut, crime report, arm-chair.

3)Complexes of the “mother-in-law” type are phrases that are used as one word. they are mostly occasional units coined in speech: Some people are do-it-nowers, others do-it-some-other-timers. These complexes are usually hyphenated in writing and are pronounced with one heavy stress like many compound words.

VI. Shortening

Shortenings (or contracted words) are produced in two different ways. The first is to make a new word from a syllable of the original word. The letter may lose its beginning (phone from telephone, fence from defence), its ending (hols from holidays) or both the beginning and ending (flu from influenza).

The second way of shortening is to make a new word from the initial letters of a word group: U.N.O., B.B.C., M.P. This type is called initial shortenings (acronyms). They are found not only among formal words but also among colloquialisms and slang: g.f. (girl-friend).

Here are some more examples of informal shortenings. movie (movingpicture), specs (spectacles), I.O.Y. (I owe you), metrop (metropoly), posish (position).

Undergraduates‘ informal speech abounds in words of the type. exam, lab, prof, vac. hol, co-ed (a girl student at a coeducational school or college).

Lecture 9

Polysemy. Homonymy

I.Polysemy

The word polysemy means plurality of meanings. It exists only in the language, not in speech. A word which has more than one meaning is called polysemantic.

There are two processes of the semantic development of a word: radiation and concatenation. In cases of radiation the primary meaning stands in the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it like rays. Each secondary meaning can be traced to the primary meaning, e.g. face (the front part of the human head - the primary meaning; the front part of a building, the front part of a watch, the front part of a playing card; expression of the face, outward appearance - secondary meanings).

In cases of concatenation secondary meanings of a word develop like a chain, e.g. crust – 1. hard outer part of bread, 2. hard part of anything (a pie, a cake), 3. harder layer over soft snow, 4. sullen gloomy person, 5. impudence. Here the last meanings have nothing to do with primary ones. In such cases homonyms appeare in the language. This phenomenon is called the split of polysemy.

II.Semantic Structure of Polysemantic Words

Synchronically, the problem of polysemy ie the problem of interrelation and interdependence of different meanings of the same word. The semantic structure of

a polysemantic word is the sum total of relations between its lexico-semantic variants.

The analysis of the semantic structure of a polysemantic word is based on the following set of oppositions:

1.Direct-derived meaning: rat – animal like, but larger than a mouse; rat – cowardly person; strike-breaker.

2.Extended-restricted meaning: to knock – strike, hit; to knock – of a petrol engine – make a tapping or thumping noise.

3.Free-bound meaning: hat – cover for the head; hat – nonsense (to speak through one’s hat).

4.General-specialized meaning: case – instance or example of the occurence of smth; case – (med.) person suffering from a disease.

5.Neutral-emotional meaning: nut – fruit consisting of a hard shell enclosing a kernel that can be eaten; nut – (slang) head of a human being.

III.Homonyms. Causes and Sources of Homonymy

Homonyms are words different in meaning but identical in sound or spelling, or both in sound and spelling.

Homonyms can appear in the language not only as a result of split of polysemy, but also as a result of levelling of grammar inflexions, when different parts of speech become identical in their outer aspect: care from caru and care from carian.

They can also be formed by means of conversion: slim – to slim.

They can be formed with the help of the same suffix from the same stem: reader – a person who reads and a book for reading.

They can be the result of forming splinters, completives and lexical abbreviations: bio – a splinter with the meaning biology, biological as in the word biometrics; bio – a combining form with the meaning life as in the word biology;

bio – a lexical shortening of the word biography with the meaning a short biography.

Homonyms can also appear in the language accidentally when two words coincide in their development, e.g. two native words can coincide in their outer aspects: to bear from beran (to carry) and bear from bera (an animal). A native word and a borrowing can coincide in their outer aspects, e.g. fair from Latin feria and fair from native fager (blond). Two borrowings can coincide, e.g. base from the French base (Latin basis) and base (low) from the Latin bas (Italian basso).

Homonyms can develop through shortening of different words: COD from

Concise Oxford Dictionary and cash on delivery.

IV. Classification of Homonyms

Walter Skeat classified homonyms according to their spelling and sound forms and he pointed out three groups: perfect homonyms, words identical in sound and spelling: school – косяк рыбы and школа; homographs, words with the same spelling but pronounced differently: bow – поклон and bow – лук; homophones, words pronounced identically but spelled differently: night - ночь and knight - рыцарь.

Another classification was suggested by A.I. Smirnitsky. He added to Skeat’s classification one more criterion: grammatical meaning. he subdivided the group of perfect homonyms into two types:

a)perfect homonyms which are identical in their spelling, pronunciation and their grammar form: spring in the meanings the season of the year, a leap, a source;

b)homoforms which coincide in their spelling and pronunciation but have different grammatical meaning: reading – Present Participle, Gerund,

Verbal noun; to lobby-lobby.

I.V. Arnold pointed out the following groups of homonyms:

a)homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings, basic forms and paradigms and different in their lexical meanings: board – a council and board – a piece of wood sawn thin;

b)homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings and basic forms, but different in their lexical meanings and paradigms: to lie – lied – lied, and to lie – lay – lain;

c)homonyms different in their lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, paradigms, but coinciding in their basic forms: light (lights) - light (lighter, lightest);

d)homonyms different in their lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, in their basic forms and paradigms, but coinciding in one of the forms of their paradigms: a bit and bit (from to bite);

e)patterned homonyms differ from other homonyms, having a common component in their lexical meanings. They are formed either by means of conversion, or by levelling of grammar inflexions. These homonyms are different in their grammatical meanings, in their paradigms, but identical in their basic forms: warm – to warm.

Lecture 10

Synonymy. Paronymy. Antonymy

I.Synonyms

Synonyms are words different in their outer aspects, but identical or similar in their inner aspects. In English there are many synonyms, because there are a lot of borrowings: hearty (native) – cordial (borrowing). After a word is borrowed it undergoes desynonymization, because absolute synonyms are unnecessary for a