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ity about the belles-letters style since in modern works of fiction we may encounter practically any functional speech type imaginable. It is certainly true that many works of fiction contain emotionally colored passages of emotive writing marked by expressive means and stylistic devices. But at the same time many writers reproduce their character’s direct speech, quote extracts from legal documents, newspaper items, headlines, etc, which do not belong to belles-letters style in its traditional meaning. We assume that the poetic language, the language of fiction does not constitute a functional style comparable with other functional styles but it constitutes a functional type of language. Literary texts are objects of art which have their own specific structures whose functions differ in many respects from those of practical texts and utterances.

The status of the newspaper style is also doubtful. Some scholars consider that the existence of this style is conditioned by the specific aims of mass media and by the peculiarities of the linguistic means used in newspapers. But these peculiarities are confined to very limited newspaper units - headlines, brief news items and editorials Thus, it is more reasonable to speak about the newspaper language rather than about the newspaper style.

Finishing this brief outline of functional styles observed in modern English, it is necessary to stress, again, two points. The first one concerns the dichotomy "written // oral", which is not synonymous to the dichotomy "literary // colloquial", the former opposition meaning the form of presentation, the latter - the choice of language means. There are colloquial messages in the written form (such as personal letters, informal notes, diaries and journals) and vice versa: we have examples of literary discourses in the oral form (as in a recital, lecture, report, paper read at a conference etc.).

The second point deals with the flexibility of style boundaries: the borders within which a style presumably functions are not rigid and allow various degrees of overlapping and melting into each other. It is not accidental that rather often we speak of intermediate cases such as the popular scientific style which combines the features of scientific and belles-lettres styles, or the style of new journalism which is a combination of publicist, newspaper and belles-lettres styles, etc.

It should be mentioned that all the classifications have their right to exist. In this course of lectures we mainly deal with the classification of I.R. Galperin, though the overview of Colloquial styles will be given too.

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2.3.Literary Styles

2.3.1.The Style of Official Documents

Official style, or the style of official documents, is the most conservative one. It preserves cast-iron forms of structuring and clichés and uses syntactical constructions and words long known as archaic and not observed anywhere else. Addressing documents and official letters, signing them, expressing the reasons and considerations leading to the subject of the document/ letter – all this is strictly regulated both lexically and syntactically. As any document should provide complete clarity of the subject matter all emotiveness and subjective modality are completely banned out of this style. It is used in formal situations with the social roles of the communicants being equal or non-equal.

The aim:

1)to reach agreement between two contracting parties;

2)to state the conditions binding two parties in an understanding.

The sub-styles are:

1)style of business letters,

2)style of legal documents,

3)style of diplomacy,

4)style of military documents.

Vocabulary peculiarities:

1.Each of sub-styles of official documents makes use of special terms and bookish words.

2.The documents use set expressions inherited from early Victorian period. This vocabulary is conservative.

3.Legal documents contain a large proportion of formal and archaic words used in their dictionary meaning.

4.In diplomatic and legal documents many words have Latin and French origin.

5.There are a lot of abbreviations and conventional symbols.

Grammar peculiarities:

1.The most noticeable feature of grammar is the compositional pattern. Every document has its own stereotyped form. The form itself is informative and tells you with what kind of letter we deal with. Business letters contain: heading, addressing, salutation, the opening, the body, the closing, complimentary clause, the signature.

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2.Syntactical features are – the predominance of extended simple and complex sentences, wide use of participial constructions, homogeneous members.

3.Morphological peculiarities are passive constructions, they make the letters impersonal. There is a tendency to avoid pronoun reference.

2.3.2.The Scientific Prose Style

Scientific style is employed in professional communication. It's a variant of the national literary language, the main aim of which is creating new concepts, disclosing the international laws of existence and grounding some scientific research, which predetermines the choice of vocabulary and grammar.

The style of scientific prose has 3 subdivisions:

1)the style of humanitarian sciences,

2)the style of exact sciences,

3)the style of popular scientific prose.

General peculiarities:

1.The only function is intellectual communicative.

2.The necessity to state the complicated material in an intelligible, consistent and precise manner.

3.Every passage begins with the key sentence rendering the core idea.

4.Meets the requirements of logical coherence and objectivity in stating the ideas.

5.Reflects the intellectual processes and is addressed to intellect.

6.Lack or limitation of contact with an addressee.

7.Use of quotations and references.

8.Use of foot-notes helps to preserve the logical coherence of ideas.

Vocabulary peculiarities:

1.The most conspicuous peculiarity is the abundance of special terms denoting objects, phenomena and processes characteristic of some particular field of science and technique. The scientific prose style consists mostly of ordinary words which tend to be used in their primary logical meaning or terminological meaning. Emotiveness depends on the subject of investigation but mostly scientific prose style is unemotional.

2.Special set phrases and adverbs: to sum up, as we have seen, so far we have been considering; finally, again, thus

3.The use of bookish words: automata, perform, comprise, susceptible, approximate, calculation, heterogeneous, maximum, minimum, phenomenon - phenomena, simultaneous

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4.The logical emphasis may be expressed lexically: note that..., I wish to emphasise..., another point of considerable interest is ..., an interesting problem is that of ..., one of the most remarkable of...

5.Quantitative expressiveness exceeds qualitative one: very far from conservative, much less limited, almost all of which, much the same, most essential

Grammar peculiarities:

Morphology:

1.The author's speech is presented in the 1st person plural "we", which is conditioned, first, by the assumption that science is created by a great number of scientists, and second, by the aim to involve the reader in the process of reasoning and argumentation: we are coming to realise, the tube has shown us, we are beginning to see, we deal with,

2.Impersonal sentences with "it" and constructions with "one" are widely used: It should be borne in mind, it may be seen; one may write, one may show, one may assume, one can readily see

3.The preference is given to the passive voice and non-personal forms of the verb: The notation is the same as previously used I use the same notation as previously

4.The use of noun phrases instead of verbal constructions gives more possibilities of generalization : at the time of our arrival will be used instead of when we arrived

5.Present Continuous and Future tenses are used more often than Present Simple tense: To-day we are coming to realize that ... . We are beginning to see that ... . Finally, as long as the automaton is running, ...

Syntax:

1.Syntactic structure: complete and stereotypic. The sentences used are mainly complex and if simple, rather extended.

2.The word order is mainly direct.

3.The wide use of attributes, almost each noun has a postor prepositional attribute, prepositional, participial, gerundial or infinitive construction:

To cover this aspect of communication engineering we had to develop a statistical theory of the amount of information, in which the unit of the amount of information was that transmitted as a single decision between equally probable alternatives.

4.The use of specific prepositional groups: anti-aircraft fire-control systems, automatically-controlled oil-cracking stills, ultra rapid computer machines

5.The abundance of conjunctions and connectives : that, and that,

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than, if, as, or, nor; not merely ... but also, whether ... or, both ... and, as ...

as ...; thereby, therewith, hereby

Documents written in Humanities in comparison with exact sciences employ more emotionally coloured words, fewer passive constructions. Scientific popular style has the following peculiarities: emotive words, elements of colloquial style

2.3.3. The Publicist Style

Publicist style is a perfect example of the historical changeability of stylistic differentiation of discourses. In ancient Greece, e.g., it was practiced mainly in its oral form and was best known as oratorical style, within which views and sentiments of the addresser (orator) found their expression. Nowadays political, ideological, ethical, social beliefs and statements of the addresser are prevailingly expressed in the written form, which was labelled publicist in accordance with the name of the corresponding genre and its practitioners.

Publicist style is famous for its explicit pragmatic function of persuasion directed at influencing the reader and shaping his views, in accordance with the argumentation of the author. Correspondingly, we find in publicist style a blend of the rigorous logical reasoning, reflecting the objective state of things, and a strong subjectivity reflecting the author's personal feelings and emotions towards the discussed subject. The Publicist Style treats certain political, social, economic, cultural problems.

The general aim is to exert a constant and deep influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view … not merely by logical argumentation, but by emotional appeal as well (brain-washing function). It is widely used for propaganda,

Features of publicist style:

1)combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal – features, common with the style of scientific prose and emotive prose;

2)coherent and logical syntactical structure, expanded system of connectives and careful paragraphing;

3)use of words with emotive meaning, the use of other stylistic devices (SDs) as in emotive prose, but the SDs are not fresh or genuine;

4)individual element is little in evidence here, generally toned down and limited;

5)leading feature – brevity of expression (sometimes epigrammatic).

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Sub-styles of the Publicist Style:

Oral form:

1)the oratory/ public speeches;

2)radio and TV commentary. Written form:

3)essays (moral, philosophical, literary; reviews in journals and magazines, pamphlets);

4)journalistic articles (political, social, economic).

Oratory – is an oral prepared speech aimed at informing the listener, elucidating and affecting him/ her. Due to the direct contact with the audience the oratory vastly employs syntactic, lexical and phonetic expressive means. The oratory vocabulary comprises neutral and literary words, terms and colloquial expressions, but the slang should not be used. It is characterized by modality of expression. It makes use of a great number of expressive means to arouse and keep the public's interest: repetition, gradation, antithesis, rhetorical questions, inversion, and emotive words. (e.g. We meet under the shadow of a global crisis, small and medium enterprises may be starved of credit. Countries and their governments must be in a driving seat. What is it we have observed? What might countries look for in such a development framework? How can this be scaled up to cover the country?) It should also be noted that logical and clear conclusions are necessary.

Radio and TV commentary is less impersonal and more expressive and emotional.

The essay is a small piece of prose on abstract philosophical, literary critical or ethical topic. An essayist may not go deep into the problem, he gives his appraisal. It is very subjective and emotional and the most colloquial of the all sub-styles of the publicist style. It makes use of expressive means and tropes (sustained metaphors, epithets). The range of vocabulary is rather wide; both used literary words and colloquial expressions. The syntax is rather complicated. The authors use imperative sentences and an appeal to the reader. (e.g. Today is such a time, when the project of interpretation is largely reactionary, stifling. Like the fumes of the automobile effusion of interpretations of art today poisons our sensibilities. In a culture whose already classical dilemma is sensual capability, interpretation is the revenge of the intellect upon art. Even more. It is the revenge of the intellect upon the world. It is to turn the world into this world.)

The journalistic articles are more impersonal. The main aim is to

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transfer the information. Irrespective of the character of the magazine and the divergence of subject matter – whether it is political, literary, popularscientific or satirical – all the already mentioned features of the publicist style are to be found in any article. The character of the magazine as well as the subject chosen affects the choice and use of stylistic devices. Words of emotive meaning, for example, are few, if any, in popular scientific articles. Their exposition is more consistent and the system of connectives more expanded than, say, in a satirical style.

The language of political magazines articles differs little from that of newspaper articles. But such elements of the publicist style as rare and bookish words, neologisms (which sometimes require explanation in the text), traditional words combinations and parenthesis are more frequent here than in newspaper articles. Literary reviews stand closer to essays both by their content and by their linguistic form. More abstract words of logical meaning are used in them; they more often resort to emotional language and less frequently to traditional set expressions.

(e.g. And the list of unwelcome Russians goes on. The country’s movers and shakers were stunned last month when former Kremlin property manager Pavel Borodin was arrested in New York. U.S. law-enforcement authorities were honoring a request by their Swiss counterparts, who want to put Borodin on trial for money laundering. (Russian prosecutors dropped their own charges against Borodin in the same case last December.) The Borodin imbroglio has prompted an outcry in the Russian media. etc.)

2.3.4. The Newspaper Functional Styles

Newspaper style, as it is evident from its name, is found in newspapers. You should not conclude though that everything published in a newspaper should be referred to the newspaper style. The paper contains vastly varying materials, some of them being publicist essays, some – feature articles, some

– scientific reviews, some – official stock-exchange accounts, etc., so that a daily (weekly) newspaper also offers a variety of styles. When we mention "newspaper style", we mean informative materials, characteristic of newspaper only and not found in other publications.

The main aim is to inform and instruct the reader, to transfer the information objectively in oral and written form without introducing any subjective or emotional evaluation.

The Sub-styles of Newspaper Functional Style

1)brief news items and communiqués;

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2)advertisements and announcements;

3)headlines;

4)the editorial.

Lexical peculiarities:

1.Proper names: toponymy, anthroponomy, names of institutions and organizations,

2.A lot of numerals and dates

3.Abundance of internationalisms

4.Tendency to produce neologisms which then become clichés (e.g. vital issue, pillar of society)

5.A great number of special political and economic terms, non-term political vocabulary, abstract words, newspaper clichés, abbreviations

6.The abundance of not so much emotional rather than evaluative and expressive vocabulary (e.g. When the last Labour Government was kicked out)

Grammar peculiarities:

1)syntactic constructions, indicating a lack of assurance of the reporter as to the correctness of the facts reported or his desire to avoid responsibility;

2)complex sentences with a developed system of clauses;

3)syntactical complexes: verbal constructions (infinitive, participial, gerundial) and verbal noun constructions;

4)specific word order – five-w-and-h-pattern rule: (who-what-why-how- where-when);

5)attributive noun groups (e.g. leap into space age, the паtiопаl income and expenditure figures);

6)a lot of quotations and direct speech, a developed system of direct speech rendering;

7)a simple verb is often substituted by a set expression: e.g. make contact with, be subjected to, have the effect of, exhibit a tendency to, serve the purpose of; greatly to be desired, a development to be expected.

Brief news items: their function is to inform the reader. They state only facts without giving comments. This accounts for the total absence of any individuality of expression and the almost complete lack of emotional coloring. A brief news item is essentially matter-of-fact, and stereotyped forms of expression prevail. The vocabulary used is neutral and common literary. The basic peculiarity of the brief news items lies in their syntactical structure. As the reporter is obliged to be brief, he naturally tries to cram all the facts into

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the space allotted. All the stated above peculiarities of newspaper style are inherent to brief news items.

Headline is а dependent form of newspaper writing because its specific functional and linguistic traits provide sufficient ground for isolating and analyzing it as а specific "genre" of journalism. The main function is to inform the reader briefly of what the news to follow is about. Sometimes headlines contain elements of appraisal, i.e. they show the reporter's or paper's attitude to the facts reported. Nowadays sensational headlines аге quite cоmmоn, especially in "yellow" press (e.g. BRITAIN ALMOST "CUT IN HALF")

Syntactically headlines are very short sentences, or phrases of a variety of patterns:

1 . Full declarative sentences.

2.Interrogative sentences.

3.Nominative sentences.

4.Elliptical sentences.

5.Sentences with articles omitted.

6.Phrases with verbals.

7.Questions in the form of statements.

8.Complex sentences.

9.Headlines including direct speech.

Advertisements and announcements. The function of advertisements and announcements is to inform the reader. There are two types of them: classified and non-classified. In classified the information is arranged according to the subject matter: births, marriages, deaths, business offers, personal etc.

BIRTHS

CULHANE.-On November 1st, at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, to BARBARA and JOHN CULHANE- а son.

Specific peculiarities:

1.Elliptical pattern: all elements that сan bе done without tend to bе eliminated from the sentence.

2.Brevity of expression: the absence of articles and some punctuation marks, which makes the statement telegram-like.

3.On the whole essentially neutral vocabulary with а sprinkling of emotionally coloured words or phrases used to attract the reader's attention, especially in the PERSONAL section, for example

PERSONAL

ROBUST, friendly student, not entirely unintelligent, seeks Christmas vacation job. No wife, will travel, walk, ride оr drive and undertake аnу do-

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mestic, agricultural оr industrial activity. Will bidders for this curiously поrтаl chap, please write Box С. 552, (The Тiтes, E.G. 4.)

As for non-classified advertisements and announcements, the variety of language form and subject-matter is so great that hardly any essential features common to all may be pointed out. The reader's attention is attracted by every possible means: typographical, graphical and stylistic, both lexical and syntactical. Here there is no call for brevity, as the advertiser may buy as much space as he chooses.

WHAT WE WANT

А bank's business is with other people's money, so we want people whose integrity is beyond quest ion. money is а very personal business, so we want people who like people. Banking is work that calls for accuracy, so we want people who сап work accurately. Our staff has to have integrity, personality, accuracy. We want them to have imagination too.

The Editorial

Editorials are intermediate phenomenon bearing the stamp of both the newspaper style and the publicist style.

The function of the editorial is to influence the reader by giving an interpretation of certain facts. Editorials comment on the political and other events of the day. Their purpose is to give the editor's opinion and interpretation of news published, and suggest to the reader that it is the correct one. Like any evaluative writing, editorials appeal not only to the reader's mind but to his feelings as well. Along with common peculiarities stated above such specific features can be mentioned:

1.Emotionally coloured vocabulary (colloquial words and expressions, slang and professionalisms).

2.Stylistic devices, both lexical and syntactical, the use of which is largely traditional. Editorials abound in trite stylistic means, especially metaphors and epithets, e.g. а price spiral, а spectacular sight, an outrageous act, brutal rulе, ап astounding stateтent, crazy policies.

3.But genuine stylistic means аге also sometimes used, which helps the writer of the editorial to bring his idea home to the reader. Two types of allusions can bе distinguished in newspaper article writing:

·Allusions to political and other facts of the day which аге indispensable.

·Historical, literary and biblical allusions which аге often used to create а specific stylistic effect, largely satirical.

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