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Chapter 2 - Microcontroller PIC16F84

2.5 Memory organization

PIC16F84 has two separate memory blocks, one for data and the other for program. EEPROM memory and GPR registers in RAM memory make up a block for data, and FLASH memory makes up a program block.

Program memory

Program memory has been realized in FLASH technology which makes it possible to program a microcontroller many times before it's installed into a device, and even after its installment if eventual changes in program or process parameters should occur. The size of program memory is 1024 locations with 14 bits width where locations zero and four are reserved for reset and interrupt vector.

Data memory

Data memory consists of EEPROM and RAM memories. EEPROM memory consists of 64 eight bit locations whose contents is not lost during an interrupt in supply. EEPROM is not stored directly in memory space, but is accessed indirectly through EEADR and EEDATA registers. As EEPROM memory usually serves for storing important parameters (for example, of a given temperature in temperature regulators) , there is a strict procedure for writing in EEPROM which must be followed in order to avoid accidental writing. RAM memory for data takes up space on a memory map from location 0x0C to 0x4F which comes to 68 locations. Locations of RAM memory are also called GPR registers which is short for General Purpose Registers. GPR registers can be accessed regardless of which bank is selected at the moment.

SFR registers

Registers which take up first 12 locations in banks 0 and 1 are registers of specialized function and have to do with working with certain blocks of the microcontroller. These are called Special Function Registers.

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Memory organization of microcontroller 16F84

Memory Banks

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Beside this 'linear' division to SFR and GPR registers, memory map is also divided in 'width' (see preceding map) to two areas called 'banks'. Selecting one of the banks is done via RP0 and RP1 bits in STATUS register.

Example:

bcf STATUS, RP0

Instruction BCF resets bit RP0 (RP0=0) in STATUS register and thus sets up bank 0. bsf STATUS, RP0

Instruction BSF sets the bit RP0 (RP0=1) in STATUS register and thus sets up bank1.

Usually, groups of instructions that are often in use, are connected into one unit which can easily be recalled in a program, and whose name has a clear meaning, so called Macros. With their use, selection between two banks becomes more clear and the program itself more legible.

Locations 0Ch - 4Fh are general purpose registers (GPR) which are used as RAM memory. When locations 8Ch - CFh in Bank 1 are accessed, we actually access the exact same locations in Bank 0. In other words , whenever you wish to access one of the GPR registers, there is no need to worry about which bank we are in!

Program Counter

Program counter (PC) is a 13 bit register that contains the address of the instruction being executed. By its incrementing or change (ex. in case of jumps) microcontroller executes program instructions one by one.

Stack

PIC16F84 has a 13-bit stack with 8 levels, or in other words, a group of 8 memory locations of 13 - bits width with special function. Its basic role is to keep the value of program counter after a jump from the main program to an address of a subprogram being executed has occured. In order for a program to know how to go back to the point where it started from, it has to return the value of a program counter from a stack. When moving from a program to a subprogram, program counter is being pushed onto a stack (example of this is CALL instruction). When executing instructions such as RETURN, RETLW or RETFIE which are executed at the end of a subprogram, program counter is taken from a stack so that program could continue where it stopped before it was interrupted. These operations of placing on and taking off from a program counter stack are called PUSH and POP, and are named after instructions which exist on some bigger microcontrollers.

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In System Programming

In order to program a program memory, microcontroller must be set to special working regime by bringing up MCLR pin to 13.5V, and supply voltage Vdd has to be stabilized between 4.5V to 5.5V. Program memory can be programmed serially using two 'data/clock' pins which must previously be separated from device lines, so that errors wouldn't come up during programming.

Addressing modes

RAM memory locations can be accessed directly or indirectly.

Direct Addressing

Direct Addressing is done through a 9-bit address. This address is obtained by connecting 7th bit of direct address of an instruction with two bits (RP1, RP0) from STATUS register as is shown on the following picture. Any access to SFR registers can be an example of direct addressing.

Bsf STATUS, RP0 ;Bankl

Direct addressing

Indirect Addressing

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Indirect unlike direct addressing does not take an address from an instruction but makes it with the help of IRP bit of STATUS and FSR registers. Addressed location is accessed via INDF register which in fact holds the address indicated by a FSR. In other words, any instruction which uses INDF as its register in reality accesses data indicated by a FSR register. Let's say, for instance, that one general purpose register (GPR) at address 0Fh contains a value of 20. By writing a value of 0Fh in FSR register we will get a register indicator at address 0Fh, and by reading from INDF register, we will get a value of 20, which means that we have read from the first register its value without accessing it directly (but via FSR and INDF). It appears that this type of addressing does not have any advantages over direct addressing, but certain needs do exist during programming which can be solved smoothly only through indirect addressing.

Indirect addressing

An example can be sending a set of data via serial communication, working with buffers and indicators (which will be discussed further in a chapter with examples), or erasing a part of RAM memory (16 locations) as in the following instance.

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Reading data from INDF register when the contents of FSR register is equal to zero returns the value of zeros, and writing to it results in NOP operation (no operation).

© Copyright 1999. mikroElektronika. All Rights Reserved. For any comments contact webmaster.

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2.6 Interrupts

Interrupts are a mechanism of a microcontroller which makes it possible to respond to some events at the moment when they occur, regardless of what microcontroller is doing at the time. This is a very important part, because it provides connection between a microcontroller and a real world which surrounds us. Generally, each interrupt changes the flow of program execution, interrupts it and after executing an interrupt subprogram (interrupt routine) it continues from that same point on.

One of the possible sources of an interrupt and how it affects the main program

Control register of an interrupt is called INTCON and is found at 0Bh address. Its role is to allow or disallowed interrupts, and in case they are not allowed, it registers specific interrupt requests through its own bits.

INTCON Register

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bit 0 RBIF (RB Port Change Flag bit) Bit which informs about changes on pins 4, 5, 6 and 7 of port B.

1=at least one pin has changed its status 0=no change occured on any of the pins

bit 1 INTF (INT External Interrupt Flag bit) External interrupt occured. 1=interrupt occured

0=interrupt did not occur

If a rising or falling edge is detected on pin RB0/INT, (which is defined with bit INTEDG in OPTION register), bit INTF is set. Bit must be reset in interrupt subprogram in order to detect the next interrupt.

bit 2 T0IF (TMR0 Overflow Interrupt Flag bit) Overflow of counter TMR0. 1= counter changed its status with FFh 00h

0=overflow did not occur

Bit must be reset in program in order for an interrupt to be detected.

bit 3 RBIE (RB port change Interrupt Enable bit) Enables interrupts to occur at the change of status of pins 4, 5, 6, and 7 of port B.

1= enables interrupts at the change of status 0=interrupts disabled at the change of status

If RBIE and RBIF are simultaneously set, an interrupt will occur.

bit 4 INTE (INT External Interrupt Enable bit) Bit which enables external interrupt from pin RB0/INT.

1=external interrupt enabled 0=external interrupt disabled

If INTE and INTF are set simultaneously, an interrupt will occur.

bit 5 T0IE (TMR0 Overflow Interrupt Enable bit) Bit which enables interrupts during counter TMR0 overflow.

1=interrupt enabled 0=interrupt disabled

If T0IE and T0IF are set simultaneously, interrupt will occur.

Bit 6 EEIE (EEPROM Write Complete Interrupt Enable bit) Bit which enables an interrupt at the end of a writing routine to EEPROM

1=interrupt enabled 0=interrupt disabled

If EEIE and EEIF (which is in EECON1 register) are set simultaneously , an interrupt will occur.

Bit 7 GIE (Global Interrupt Enable bit) Bit which allows or disallows all interrupts. 1=all interrupts are enabled

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0=all interrupts are disabled

PIC16F84 has four interrupt sources:

1.Termination of writing data to EEPROM

2.TMR0 interrupt caused by timer overflow

3.Interrupt during alteration on RB4, RB5, RB6 and RB7 pins of port B.

4.External interrupt from RB0/INT pin of microcontroller

Generally speaking, each interrupt source has two bits joined to it. One enables interrupts, and the other detects when interrupts occur. There is one common bit called GIE which can be used to disallow or enable all interrupts simultaneously. This bit is very useful when writing a program because it allows for all interrupts to be disabled for a period of time, so that execution of some important part of a program would not be interrupted. When instruction which resets GIE bit is executed (GIE=0, all interrupts disallowed), any interrupt that remained unsolved should be ignored.

Outline of 16F84 microcontroller interrupt

Interrupts which remained unsolved and are ignored, are processed when GIE bit (GIE=1, all interrupts allowed) is reset. When interrupt is answered, GIE bit is reset so that any additional interrupts would be disabled, return address is pushed onto stack and address 0004h is written in program counter - only after this does replying to an interrupt begin! After interrupt is processed, bit whose setting caused an interrupt must be reset, or interrupt routine will automatically be processed over again during a return to the main program.

Keeping the contents of important registers

Only return value of program counter is stored on a stack during an interrupt (by return value of program counter we mean the address of the instruction which was to be executed, but wasn't because interrupt occured). Keeping only the value of program counter is often not enough. Some registers which are already in use in the main program can also be in use in interrupt routine. If

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they were not retained, main program would during a return from an interrupt routine get completely different values in those registers, which would cause an error in the program. One example for such a case is contents of the work register W. If we suppose that main program was using work register W for some of its operations, and if it had stored in it some value that's important for the following instruction, then an interrupt which occurs before that instruction will change the value of work register W which will directly influence the main program.

Procedure of recording important registers before going to an interrupt routine is called PUSH, while the procedure which brings recorded values back, is called POP. PUSH and POP are instructions with some other microcontrollers (Intel), but are so widely accepted that a whole operation is named after them. PIC16F84 does not have instructions like PUSH and POP, and they have to be programmed.

One of the possible cases of errors if saving is not done when going to a subprogram of an interrupt

Due to simplicity and frequent usage, these parts of the program can be made as macros. The concept of a Macro is explained in "Program assembly language". In the following example, contents of W and STATUS registers are stored in W_TEMP and STATUS_TEMP variables prior to interrupt routine. At the beginning of PUSH routine we need to check presently selected bank because W_TEMP and STATUS_TEMP are found in bank 0. For exchange of data between these registers, SWAPF instruction is used instead of MOVF because it does not affect the status of STATUS register bits.

Example is a program assembler for following steps:

1.Testing the current bank

2.Storing W register regardless of the current bank

3.Storing STATUS register in bank 0.

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4.Executing interrupt routine for interrupt processing (ISR)

5.Restores STATUS register

6.Restores W register

If there are some more variables or registers that need to be stored, then they need to be kept after storing STATUS register (step 3), and brought back before STATUS register is restored (step 5).

The same instance can be realized by using macros, thus getting a more legible program. Macros that are already defined can be used for writing new macros. Macros BANK1 and BANK0 which are explained in "Memory organization" chapter are used with macros 'push' and 'pop'.

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External interrupt on RB0/INT pin of microcontroller

External interrupt on RB0/INT pin is triggered by rising signal edge (if bit INTEDG=1 in OPTION<6> register), or falling edge (if INTEDG=0). When correct signal appears on INT pin, INTF bit is set in INTCON register. INTF bit (INTCON<1>) must be reset in interrupt routine, so that interrupt wouldn't occur again while going back to the main program. This is an important part of the program which programmer must not forget, or program will constantly go into interrupt routine. Interrupt can be turned off by resetting INTE control bit (INTCON<4>).

Interrupt during a TMR0 counter overflow

Overflow of TMR0 counter (with FFh on 00h) will set T0IF (INTCON<2>) bit. This is quite a significant interrupt because many real problems can be solved using this interrupt. One of the examples is time measurement. If we know how much time counter needs in order to complete one cycle from 00h to FFh, then a number of interrupts multiplied by that amount of time will yield the total of elapsed time. In interrupt routine some variable would be incremented in RAM memory, value of that variable multiplied by the amount of time the counter needs to count through a whole cycle, would yield total elapsed time. Interrupt can bi turned on/off by setting/resetting T0IE (INTCON<5>) bit.

Interrupt during a change on pins 4, 5, 6 and 7 of port B

Change of input signal on PORTB <7:4> sets RBIF (INTCON<0>) bit. Four pins RB7, RB6, RB5 and RB4 of port B, can trigger an interrupt which occurs when status on them changes from logic one to logic zero, or vice versa. For pins to be sensitive to this change, they must be defined as input. If any one of them is defined as output, interrupt will not be generated at the change of status. If they are defined as input, their current state is compared to the old value which was stored at the last reading from port B. Interrupt can be turned on/off by setting/resetting RBIE bit

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in INTCON register.

Interrupt during

This interrupt is of practical nature only. Since writing to one EEPROM location takes about 10ms (which is a long time in the notion of a microcontroller), it doesn't pay off to a microcontroller to wait for writing to end. Thus interrupt mechanism is added which allows the microcontroller to continue executing the main program, while writing in EEPROM is being done in the background. When writing is completed, interrupt informs the microcontroller that writing has ended. EEIF bit, through which this informing is done, is found in EECON1 register. Occurrence of an interrupt can be disabled by resetting the EEIE bit in INTCON register.

Interrupt initialization

In order to use an interrupt mechanism of a microcontroller, some preparatory tasks need to be performed. These procedures are in short called "initialization". By initialization we define to what interrupts the microcontroller will respond, and which ones it will ignore. If we do not set the bit that allows a certain interrupt, program will not execute an interrupt subprogram. Through this we can obtain control over interrupt occurrence, which is very useful.

The above example shows initialization of external interrupt on RB0 pin of a microcontroller. Where we see one being set, that means that interrupt is enabled. Occurrence of other interrupts is not allowed, and all interrupts together are disallowed until GIE bit is set to one.

The following example shows a typical way of handling interrupts. PIC16F84 has only one location where the address of an interrupt subprogram is stored. This means that first we need to detect which interrupt is at hand (if more than one interrupt source is available), and then we can execute that part of a program which refers to that interrupt.

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Return from interrupt routine can be accomplished with instructions RETURN, RETLW and RETFIE. It is recommended that instruction RETFIE be used because that instruction is the only one which automatically sets the GIE bit which bit allows new interrupts to occur.

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© Copyright 1999. mikroElektronika. All Rights Reserved. For any comments contact webmaster.

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