Файл: Шекспиризмы вчера и сегодня (The Notion and Classification of English Idioms).pdf

...what is good of pride of place when you cannot appear there! (H.Wells, The Invisible man)

The idiom pound of flash ("Merchant of Venice") hadquite a different meaning in the 16 -17^th centuries, whereas now it means the exact quantity of something which belongs to a person according to the law. Shakespeare referred to this phrase in several contexts with the verbs to appear, to cut, to take, to have, to claim. In modern English the idiom is used with all those verbs and with the verbs to give, to get, to want.

He would not have given his pound of flash to be captain of her guard. (Ch. Kingsley, Miscellanies)

...for he could not see how his exaction of pound of flash was to be evaded... (Th. Driser, The Titan)

As we can see from the examples above, normative changes mostly affect the semantics and the structure of idioms. Further we will prove that the majority of occasional changes are stylistic.

II Occasional changes

As it was mentioned before occasional changes in shakespearisms are usually used as stylistic devices. These changes occur only in one particular context and are not fixed in the dictionaries. They have a particular aim - to emphasize or to make something more precise, to make an image more vivid and bright or sometimes to weaken the meaning of an idiom in a particular context. The structure of the idiom can be either demolished or not by these changes. That is why there is the following subdivision of occasional changes in shakespearisms:

1) changes which kept the structure of the idiom;

2) changes which demolished the structure of the idiom.

The first group consists of idioms with additional elements in their beginning or end which do not change the idiom itself. The strengthening of the meaning can be manifested through the intensification of expressive means and strengthening of imagery; specification is achieved by specification of semantic elements. Morphologic variation also occurs among occasional changes. We can observe nouns in the singular instead of nouns in the plural or vice versa. Interrelation between objects can also be changed - it is a case of stylistic distribution.

Besides, some of the components of an idiom can be used in their direct and indirect meanings simultaneously, which can produce a great effect.

In the second group additional elements are included in the idiom. They demolish its structure and change the meaning. These additional elements are called "nonce-words". "Nonce words" are words which once were used by an author, but have not become a phraseological unit.(Свиридова, Л.Ф. 1968)

Let us illustrate all the above points with examples from literature:

• He's a man, every inch of him and every atom of his gray matter. (J. London) - strengthening of the meaning, produced by additional elements;
• ...are all eyes and ears and nerves.(Th. Dreiser, An American Tragedy) - strengthening of the meaning, produced by additional elements;
• I've cudgeled my brain all day to remember where I have seen this tall, thin man... - morphological variation (the use of the singular instead of the plural);
• ...I bore charmed lives. (J. London) -morphological variation (the use of the plural instead of the singular);
• This barber was one of Coralio's saddest dog... (O'Henry, Cabbages and Kings)-change of the comparative degree of the adjective.

These occasional changes are very numerous, but as we have already said they are not fixed and they were all used only once, therefore their role in the language is not so important as the role of normative changes.

Thus, we see that the language as a living organism constantly develops and changes, even its stable elements such as idioms undergo changes. The majority of shakespearisms have changed in a varying degree during the long time of their existence. These changes can be found in their structure, in the meaning or stylistic nuance. One of the largest groups of the changes is quantitative, which can be found among both normative and non-normative types of changes.

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The fact that shakespearisms are still changing and they have become a basis for a great number of new idioms again confirms the importance of Shakespeare'scontribution into the English language and its idiomatic vocabulary.

In this paragraph the examples of changes in shakespearisms were proved mostly by extracts from the literature of the 19^th and 20^thcenturies, because during this period of time some of them appeared or were used by authoritative and worldwide known writers. The next paragraph will be focused on the way shakespearisms are used by modern authors, whose works date from the last twenty years.

Chapter II. Shakespearisms in Modern English

W. Shakespeare's language and talent are often discussed as he was a major influence on the present-day English language, and his coining of new words such as assassination and courtship and idiomatic phrases such as salad days and cold comfort are cited as evidence. Shakespearian words and phrases still exist in modern English and can be counted in hundreds. However, his importance is not only in the numbers of words and idioms he used, but in the way he used them and in the way we use them now.

Shakespearian idioms are not archaic or grandiloquent, they can be found in different styles and genres. We will demonstrate it giving examples of publicistic and belles-lettres styles.

2.1 Shakespearisms in Mass Media (1990- 2012)

Bright, witty phrases by W. Shakespeare date back to the 16^thcentury, however, they have not lost their luster and remain popular today. Shakespeare’s works function as a source of numerous idioms that make referential connection between the literary works of the English bard and contemporary newspaper articles.

Twenty seven quotes by W. Shakespeare out of the total included in the dictionaries of quotes in their initial or modified form have been found in modern newspaper discourse. Our observations are based on the detailed analysis of examples of shakespearisms used in the articles of different American (the Wall Street Journal, the Washington Post, the Chicago Tribune, the New York Post, etc.) and British (the Independent, the Guardian, the London Evening Standard, the Daily Mail, etc.) online newspapers.

The situation of the insertion of a quote into a new text possesses both individual and objective characteristics. On the one hand, the author expects his texts to be perceived by a target language speaker who supposedly possesses deep knowledge of certain language frames. On the other hand, a reader needs to be alert and able to discover hidden signs pointing to the presence of the phrase borrowed from external source and extract its meaning and origin out of his/her memory, which makes the process of text perception more difficult.

The analysis of the texts helps us to come to conclusion that the use of shakespearisms in the articles is very often accompanied by the shift of their meaning, which is first of all the result of changing their reference, and some modifications of their form. Shakespearisms used in modified forms demonstrate the intention of journalists to attract readers’ attention, as well as to stimulate their interest.

By means of applying a fixed, widely-known pattern authors strive for novelty and originality that contributes to the expressiveness of the new formation. The examples below prove it:

Brevity is the soul of wit ("Hamlet"): Working on the assumption that brevity is the soul of wit, Alfred Hitchcock and Joe Pesci, made do with a simple "thank you" (The Observer, 2009)

  The devil can cite scripture for his purpose ("The Merchant of Venice"): At the end, quoting from St Luke, he announced "he that is lost is found": a reminder of the fact that even the devil can cite scripture for his purpose (The Guardian, 2002)

  Once more unto the breach("Henry V"): Once more unto the breach. Athens has agreed another package of last-minute measures to secure another €8-billion of emergency funding(The Globe and Mail, 2011).

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However, as it was mentioned before not all shakespearisms can be found in the articles in their original form and meaning. Further we will show several examples of famous Shakespearian phrases which have undergone changes.

The phrase all the world is a stage ("As You Like It" act 2, scene 7; "Macbeth" act 5, scene 5) in Shakespearian times highlighted the role of fate in people's life. Fate plays with Shakespearian characters and it is often cruel with them. Nowadays this phrase has become a conceptual metaphor, which discloses pretence and insincerity of our world and the reference of this idiom is narrower now. If earlier it was used about life and the world, now it is used mostly in the sphere of art. The following examples demonstrate it:

All the World's a Stage (nytimes.com 20.07.2003) - the title of the article devoted to a pop-group from Iraq.

All the world's a stage - especially classrooms, says school union (The Guardian 2.08.2006) - the article focused on the necessity of training teachers in acting, because it can be useful in their teaching practice. Thus, here stage means the classroom, where teachers work and teachers are compared with actors.

In some articles this quotation points at Shakespeare himself or his works:

All the world's a stage for Brustein (Boston Globe 2.09.2007) or All the World's His Stage (Washington Post 15.01.2007).In the second article the personal pronoun his refers to Shakespeare and the metaphor turns into metonymy, replacing the wide notion of world for the narrower one theatre, which is a metonymy of Shakespearian creative work.

Another interesting example is connected with comparison of modern politicians' actions, who launched wars in Afghanistan and Iraq for the sake of their own interests and ambitions, with the misdeeds of the Macbeths.

All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand ("Macbeth", act 5 scene 1) - this sentence means that the hands of Lady Macbeth smell bad and further the context shows us the reason for this bad smell, which is the murder of King Duncan.

This quotation was used in the Sunday Herald on 3.10.2004 and referred to Tony Blair: "... our Prime Minister has blood on his hands. And all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten his little hand. "Here the epithet "little" gets an ironic connotation and makes the whole quotation ironic, emphasizing its meaning.

However, sometimes this Shakespearian phrase can be used irrespective of its context, for example, about perfume: Lacking all the perfumes of Arabia, I have tried sweetening my hands with dishwasher detergent. (The New York Times, 28.03.1990).

Another quotation from "Macbeth" can also be used in its literal and figurative meaning. A tale told by an idiot ("Macbeth", act 5 scene 5) originally shows the meaninglessness of people's life (...a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing). In the article from Deseret News it is used in its direct meaning about an unintelligible speech of M. Moor: A tale told by an idiot (Deseret News (Salt Lake City), 23.10.2004.)

Sometimes not a whole phrase, but only some words from shakespearisms can be used in their figurative meaning. For example, the line which was said by King Richard III "A horse! A horse! my kingdom for a horse!" ("Richard III", act 5 scene 4) has a literal meaning in the play. Richard exclaimed these words during the battle, when he badly needed a horse and, as he was king of England, he could offer his kingdom for a horse. However, in the article "My kingdom for a horse" (Observer 7.03.2004) the headline has a figurative meaning. The article is devoted to the British combined team of equestrian and their chance of success and getting medals in the Olympic Games. One of the members of the team is Zara Philips, Princess Anna's daughter, who is the tenth candidate for the succession to the throne. As she has few chances to be Queen, this headline can be regarded as hyperbolical metonymy. Regarding other members of the team who do not have anything in common with the Royal Family this phrase is a metaphor, which means that all their life (kingdom) is devoted to horse riding (horse). (Bashirova 2008:7)

The idiom pride of place ("Macbeth") used to mean a height from which a bird of prey attacks its victim; now in all dictionaries its meaning is defined as "to have the most important position in a group of things" (Longman Dictionary of English Idioms, 1981). In all modern contexts it is used in its new meaning.

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 Pride of place in this collection goes to the snap of him with John and Norma Major. (Today. London: News Group Newspapers Ltd, 1992)

However, as it was mentioned in the previous chapter, shakespearisms can have not just a new meaning or stylistic nuances, but also structural synonyms or different derivations.

The play "Macbeth" is full of examples of shakespearisms with structural changes. For instance, nowadays the idiom at one fell swoop ("Macbeth") is used mostly with the preposition in.

 The company, which prides itself on its environmental record, decided a final solution was needed to avoid in one fell swoop the seasonal embarrassment of leaves on the line. (The Daily Telegraph.04.08.1992) 

In one fell swoop the authorities have made a large step towards perpetuating the quality, image and prestige of the Home Internationals by allowing the players to be available. (Golf Monthly. London: Specialist & Leisure Magazines Group, 1991) 

Hit or miss ("Troilus and Criseyde") is a widespread expression, which is hardly identified as a shakespearism nowadays. It can also be used in a variant hit and miss. Both variants are equal.

But the weirdness was hit or miss: while the pumpkin-and-sea-urchin ravioli came together surprisingly well. (Newsweek, 2010)

Investors say movies are a terrible business because it's so hit or miss, but the value of a studio is the library, just like the value ... (Fortune, 2007)

But on a day-to-day basis, solutions are still largely hit or miss. (Parenting, 1999)

... smooth, long-legged glide, and he can energize any ballpark, hit or miss, with the beautiful, looping swing. (Sports Illustrated, 1995)

... apply your second and third color using a "hit and miss" approach. (The Denver Post, 2008)

His 1950th films were more hit and miss, but the social comedy "People Will Talk" and his films for Hitchcock were a success. (San Francisco Chronicle, 2004)

...registered largely in terms of hit and miss rates.(The Washington Post, 2002)

 The idiom full of sound and fury ("Macbeth") can be found both in its full and short variants. The latter is sound and fury.

Jim Bob: full of sound and fury in NY (New Musical Express. London: Holborn Publishing Group, 1992)

  All those ladies in Burberry raincoats standing, clipboards poised, on the wind-swept corners of shopping malls; all those hundreds of thousands of electors stopped and questioned; all that ‘analysis’ and number crunching; all those column centimeters filled with prognostication; all that sound and fury; all that nothing.(Marketing Week. London: Centaur Communications, 1992) 

We sit there for nearly an hour, staring into the house-sized holes, mesmerized by the relentless sound and fury.(Esquire. London: The National Magazine Company Ltd, 1992)

Further examples from the play "Macbeth" demonstrate that some words can be changed in shakespearisms. Thus, in the phrase applaud to the echo ("Macbeth") we can found the verb "cheer" instead of "applaud":

Brian Wilson's analysis of the general election result (‘The Union strikes back’, 24 April) must have been cheered to the echo by Ian Lang and the rest of the Tory rump now running Scotland.(New Statesman and Society. London: Foundation House, 1992)

The original variant to buy golden opinions ("Macbeth") can be transformed into to win or to profit golden opinions:

In 1960 she won golden opinions in Britain in Leonid Spigelgass's study of autumnal courtship, A Majority of One (Phoenix), in which she starred opposite Robert Morley. (The Daily Telegraph, London: The Daily Telegraph plc, 1992)

The shakespearism to bear a charmed life ("Macbeth") also has different variants in modern English. The verb "bear" can be changed for have or load, instead of the noun "life" the noun "existence" can sometimes be found.

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Mr. Makallah had a charmed life. (The Independent, London: Newspaper Publishing plc, 1990).

As far as changes in grammar are concerned, it should be mentioned that sometimes shakespearisms can change the voice as in case of the idiom lay it on with a trowel ("Merchant of Venice"). It still can be used in the passive voice like in Shakespearian times, though nowadays it is more often used in the active voice. The examples of this idiom used in the active voice can be found in the next paragraph.

If all this were laid on with a trowel, the reader's patience would quickly wear thin. (The Daily Telegraph 1992.04.05).

The shakespearism every inch a king ("King Lear")gave us a widespread idiom every inch, which collocates with different nouns, not only with the word "king". The idiom is frequently used, there are examples of some contexts in which it is used below:

Inventive storage puts every inch to work and tames bathroom chaos. (Good Housekeeping, 2012)

In L.A.'s Echo Park a pair of product designers makes use of every inch of their small home. (Sunset, 2012)

If you can reach your toes, give yourself a point for every inch. (Esquire, 2011)

The Collosseum in Rome, every inch crowded with admires, a galaxy of historic figures, assembled to speak his praise... (Newsweek, 2011)

...everyone at mini-chain spinoff was all smiles, and every inch of 9000-square-foot Penn Quarter retreat... (The Washington Post, 2001)

Shaq is at the stripe, clanking line drives off every inch of rim. (Esquire, 2010)

A surge of new energy pounds through every inch of him, and there is a moment of perfect oblivion where he is aware... (Newsweek, 2010)

Including the weeks when she painted every inch of the interior, Ms. Kuzara spent about 1000 hours on her foreclosure project. (The New York Times, 2010)

Another example is the shakespearism the time is out of join ("Hamlet") which is now used in its short form out of joint with different nouns.

In the best of circumstances, timing is hopelessly out of joint. (The Atlantic, 2000)

The film focuses more attention on Paris fashion, stylish noses are decidedly out of joint over Altman's unabashedly satirical take on designers and the fashion press. (USA Today, 1994)

Chinese companies also appropriate intellectual property "often by re-innovating technology sucked out of joint ventures". (USA Today, 2011)

However, occasionally we can come across this idiom in its full variant:

The times (the early Depression years) were out of joint. (San Francisco Chronicle, 1992)

The idiom gild the lily ("King John") is interesting, because it appeared as a result of contamination of two shakespearisms gild refined gold and paint the lily.

Gild the lily by topping each serving with a dollop of whipped cream or pouring on a pool of raspberry puree - or, what the heck, go ahead and do both. (The Washington Post, 2006)

... though you could gild the lily and highlight the petals on the rose-petal cake with frosting. (San Francisco Chronicle, 2003)

There are plenty of shakespearisms which have retained their form and their meaning, though subtle shades of meaning or stylistic nuances in their usecan be found.

To be hoist with one's own petard ("Hamlet")

 Petards were unreliable and apt to detonate as soon as a match came anywhere near the fuse, resulting in the hapless sapper being blown up or ‘hoist by his own petard’. (Today. London: News Group Newspapers Ltd, 1992)

Seamy side ("Othello")

Until recently when I went to a conference on security in libraries and other collections I had not the slightest knowledge of the seamy side of that world or any idea that it had one. (New Scientist. London: IPC Magazines Ltd, 1991)

Fancy free ("Midsummer Night's Dream")

...and misogynists, scowling while the rest of the world caroused, footloose and fancy free. (The New Republic, 1991)

The shakespearism foregone conclusion ("Othello") nowadays can be understood either as an inevitable result or as a conclusion that has preceded argument or examination. In the examples below the first two extracts can be related to the first meaning and the last extract to the second meaning.

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