Файл: Шекспиризмы вчера и сегодня (The Notion and Classification of English Idioms).pdf

I think they're going to make it, but to pretend that it's a foregone conclusion or a walkover or anything like that would be quite unrealistic. (The Daily Telegraph, 1992.04.12)

Despite the president's victory, the answer to this question is not yet a foregone conclusion.(The Economist. London: The Economist Newspaper Ltd, 1993)

As posters go up in hotel lobbies and banners are hung in the international airport terminals, crowds are a foregone conclusion.(The Art Newspaper. London: Umberto Allemandi & Company, 1992)

The idiom with bated breath ("Merchant of Venice") completely preserved its original meaning and it is widely used in modern contexts.

Commercial view data services aimed at domestic customers are starting up in the US later this year, but it is not clear that the public is waiting with bated breath.(New Scientist. London: IPC Magazines Ltd, 1991)

Boxing and Las Vegas, joined in very unholy matrimony, are waiting with bated breath and heavily baited betting slips for the outcome of a fight that can be almost relied upon to restore some credibility to the heavyweight division.(Today. London: News Group Newspapers Ltd, 1992)

We find the idiom whirligig of time ("Twelfth night") in the phrase "And thus the whirligig of time brings in his revenges". The word whirligig- originally a top or any rotary device - becomes in this phrase a metaphor for time, which whirls misdeeds back on the perpetrator. Whirligig also lent the name to a contemporary machine for punishing thieves. This elaborate contraption seems to resemble a large hamster's treadmill, with a hatch in the cage which could be opened to drop the victim into water. Nowadays, the idiom is used in a sense close to reverses of fortune or vicissitudes of life.

By this time, the whirligig of time had actually brought Hill back into fashion, and I hope that his shade had a cackle at the sight of the Thames executives attempting to clamber back on to the bandwagon.

But the whirligig of time brings in his revenges, and years spent with Ted look quite good on a chap's CV (New Statesman and Society. London: Foundation House, 1992)

Though the idiom the beginning of the end ("Midsummer Night's Dream") comes from Shakespeare's play "Midsummer Night's Dream", it is hardly associated with Shakespeare. It is regarded as a set expression widely used in everyday speech and also in mass media. We have come across several examples of the use of this idiom:

It was the beginning of the end to one of the greatest friendship in fashion history. (Town & Country, 2011)

...the D-Day invasion to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Allied attack that marked the beginning of the end for Nazi Germany. (Military History, 2010)

This is the beginning of the end of the Islamic Republic as we know it. (Newsweek, 2010)

Ryan despises the VAT as the beginning of the end of the American Empire. (Fortune, 2009)

It was the beginning of the end of remarkable civilization. (Junior scholastic, 2011)

The phrase more sinned against than sinning ("King Lear") belongs to King Lear who exemplifies in the extreme a possessive parent with ungrateful children, as he chalks up their transgressions on a cosmic balance sheet. In modern language the idiom can be used not just relating to ungrateful children, but to a person, who, though he may be guilty of wrongdoing, thinks himself the victim of a more serious wrong. In this particular meaning it is used in the following examples:

In Ryan, Americans are not only more sinned against than sinning, as they are in all of Spielberg's movies, they are the aliens, and their innocence is sacrificed to the world, drenched in the most cinematic blood ever shed. (Esquire, 21/12/2012)

As for cruelty, was Japan more sinned against than sinning? (National Review, 1995)

Salad days ("Antonius and Cleopatra") is an idiomatic expression referring to a youthful time, accompanied by inexperience, enthusiasm, idealism, innocence, or indiscretion that one associates with a young person. More modern use, especially in the United States, refers to a person's heyday when somebody was at the peak of their abilities—not necessarily in that person's youth.

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Robert Rauschenberg (whose newest work, ‘Bicycloids’, ‘Urban Bourbons’ and ‘Eco-Echo’ is at Knoedler from 8 May to 4 June) would, in his salad days, make ‘combines’ out of whatever junk came to hand during an evening's walk in the streets.(The Art Newspaper. London: Umberto Allemandi & Company, 1993)

To give pause to ("Hamlet") is a well-known idiom, which is rarely associated with Shakespeare. It has slightly changed its meaning and connotation. In "Hamlet" the phrase "give us pause" means "stop and consider", in other words it shows some doubts. In modern English its meaning is  "to cause to hesitate or be unsure, as from surprise or doubt" (A.P., Cowie, X.R. , Mackin, Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English, Oxford University Press, 1996). Thus, additional meaning of surprise has appeared, which can be observed in the last example.

It's those still-undefined metrics of achievement that give pause to instructors such as Dee Blecha. (The Denver Post, 2012)

American history is filled with two kinds of years, each of which should give pause to those who'd rush to judgment on 2008. (USA Today, 2008)

It does, however, give pause to the breathless momentum with which Urbanski's project has been hurtling along. (San Francisco Chronicle,1994)

Thus, we can see that shakespearisms are widely used in British and American media. There are examples of their use either in their original or modified form, with different connotations and in different meanings.

The language of mass media is very vivid, flexible and up-to-date. The fact that shakespearisms can often be found in newspapers proves that they are a very important part of the modern English language. They are not archaisms which are used only in the literature of previous centuries, but idioms which we come across in our everyday life.

2.2 Shakespearisms in modern English literature (1990-2012)

Shakespeare played an important role in shaping the English language, and the preeminent playwright’s influence on literature is evident in the works of everyone from Herman Melville to William Faulkner. W. Shakespeare's masterpieces have not lost their significance since they were created. For example, the quotations from the Richard's monologue from the play "Richard III" (Now is the winter of our discontent/ Made glorious summer by this sun of York...)can be found in the headlines of 23 works. The most famous of them are "The Winter of Our Discontent" by John Steinbeck, "The Winter of My Discontent" by Alec Wilder and "The Sun of York" by Margaret Abbey.Another evidence of Shakespeare's significance and topicality is the British Council’s literature seminar “Shakespeare – Our Contemporary?” which took place in January 2014 in Berlin.

In this chapter we will make an attempt to prove the contemporaneity of Shakespeare and his works and wide use of many shakespearisms in the works of modern authors. Obviously it means that these shakespearisms are part of modern language, as the readers and authors know and make use of them. Typical characteristics of modern English literature include reality-based stories with strong characters and a believable story. Very often the modern novel deals with all the facts of contemporary life, the pleasant as well as the unpleasant, the beautiful as well as the ugly, and does not present merely a one sided view of life. All this presuppose that the language of the modern novels should contents words and phrases, which reflects this reality and characters. Thus, we can speak about shakespearisms as phraseological units reflecting modern reality.

Some of shakespearisms are so familiar for readers that they do not refer them to Shakespearian works. For example the idiom foregone conclusion ("Othello"), which can be found in various contexts in plenty of works.

Some commentators and businessmen have suggested that the successful privatization of the National Freight Corporation was a foregone conclusion. (Norman Fowler, Ministers decide, 1991)

The outcome seemed a foregone conclusion.

At his subsequent trial, Charles Woolridge was to take the contradictory step of pleading not guilty, but the outcome was a foregone conclusion; he was unanimously convicted. (Roger Long ,Murder in old Berkshire, 1990)

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‘Even if I were able to discover the whereabouts of these establishments — and that is by no means a foregone conclusion — the moment I produced my warrant-card, everyone would close up like a clam.’ (Ray Harrison, Patently murder , 1991)

‘Well, if 'e was in the area it's a foregone conclusion 'e'd pop in. (Harry Bowling ,The girl from Cotton Lane, 1992)

On the contrary, other shakespearisms are associated only with the playwright and his particular plays as to be or not to be ("Hamlet"). These shakespearisms are perceived as allusions to Shakespeare's masterpieces.

Please don’t think I’m here to save lives. To be or not to be, I don’t labor the decision. (Chuck Palanic, Survivor, 1999)

But he was able to say musingly, “To be or not to be.” (Ian McEvan, Atonement, 2001)

Shakespearisms used by modern authors can preserve their original form and meaning, though the meaning usually has at least slight changes or stylistic variants, or can be found in their variants.

As far as changes in the form and lexical changes are concerned we can illustrate them with the examples below.

One of the most frequently used model of changes in shakespearisms is the substitution of prepositions and conjunctions as these parts of speech are less significant and slightly change the meaning and stylistic nuances of the phrase.

For example, the shakespearism till the crack of doom ("Macbeth") can be found in the modern literature in two variants with the preposition till or to.

...yet for ever and for ever, to the crack of doom, the sea will insult and murder him. (The Crossover Novel. Rachel Falconer, 2009)

Hit or miss ("Troilus and Criseyde") is a well-known idiom, which also has two variants: hit or miss and hit and miss. The second variant is even more popular now and can be found in all dictionaries and in many contexts from modern literature.

...especially one that keeps breaking down, but even that was hit and miss. No guarantees. (Charles Martin, Thunder and Rain, 2012)

Rumours, and the snowy images from the hit and miss television reception in our mountain valley. (Donna Milner, After River, 2008)

Another shakespearism at one fell swoop ("Macbeth") is still used in its original form.

In a similar fashion, all the representative bodies of the police — ACPO, the Superintendents' Association, and the Police Federation — were outraged at the creation of the Crown Prosecution Service in the Prosecution of Offences Act in the mid-1980s; for one area of police power in the courts had been removed at one fell swoop and given to another arm of the executive. ( Young, Malcolm, An inside job, 1991)

However, the variant with the preposition in instead of at is more frequent in the modern language. At first it appeared as an American variant of the idiom, but further became a norm in Britain, too.

Remember, however, that because those stimulants are addictive, if your consumption has been particularly high you are likely to suffer withdrawal symptoms (headaches, lethargy and so on) if you try and cut the stimulants out completely in one fell swoop. (Markham, Ursula, Your four point plan for life, 1991)

Either the salt would sting into a cut or raw spot on my body, bringing back bodily feeling in one fell swoop, or else, from somewhere in the bowels of building, my ears, questing for the remotest of stimuli, would pick up on the sound of a toilet being flushed, or perhaps a trolley banging against a wall. (Self, W., My idea of fun, 1993)

Lindsey stood transfixed, feeling her colour deepen beneath a disturbingly intense appraisal which left her feeling ridiculously shaky, the ageing, fatherly figure of her imaginings swept away in one fell swoop.( Evans, Jean, A dangerous diagnosis, 1993)

Besides, there isa short variant of the idiom, which is at one swoop, and the variant with additional elements. These elements are usually adjectives before the verb fell like in the example below:

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Thus, in one, glorious fell swoop, we had not only first-hand, first-class information about island fishing locations, but also assured board and lodging when we arrived. (Sandison, Bruce, Tales of the loch, 1990)

Another way of changing the form of the shakespearisms is their shortening. One of the most striking examples is the idiom every inch which traces back to the Shakespearism every inch a king ("King Lear"). It extended its collocation greatly and can be used with different nouns in the modern English language. The examples below demonstrate the variety of contexts in which this idiom can be found. However, there are almost no contexts with the original collocation and meaning.

Brigitte looked every inch a star. (D. Steel, Betrayal, 2012)

He owns the whole planet. Every inch and acre. (J. Cantrell, Into the free, 2012)

He saw her eyes go wide and her gaze race over every inch of his naked chest. (Jaye Ford, Blood Secret, 2012)

He seemed every inch the cool aristocrat. (Laurel McKee, One Naughty Night,   2012)

Every inch of Loch Ness has been mapped by sonar. (Josh Bazell, Wild Thing,   2012)

I blinked, taking in every inch of him in slow motion. (Hannah Jayne, Under Wraps, 2011)

...drew up every inch of his average frame, and strode purposefully from the White House. (Elizabeth Cobbs Hoffman, Broken Promises: A Novel of the Civil War, 2011)

That was Curan's way. He was every inch a hardened knight. (Mary Wine, My Fair Highlander,   2011)

Another example is a well-known idiom (the time is) out of joint ("Hamlet") which is nowadays mostly used without its first part. The examples from the modern English literature prove this statement.

Pang twisted his neck almost out of joint in order to watch Dolly as she jumped into a matching escape module.(Sibella Court, Etcetera, 1999)

Mary Anne Telmin seemed to get her nose out of joint when he said that. (Catherine Ryan Hyde, Pay It Forward,1999)

I'm poured out like water, and all my bones are out of joint: my heart is like wax... (Kirsten Bakis, Lives of the Monster Dogs, 1997)

...he ran full speed and yanked him down, pulling his leg totally out of joint. (Vanessa Davis Griggs, Redeeming Waters,  2011)

Time is always out of jointin the greeting-card works. (Dexter Palmer, The Dream of Perpetual Motion, 2010)

Got their ruddy nose out of joint. (John Updike, The Widows of Eastwick, 2008)

"What's got your nose out of joint?" (Sophie Jordan, Too wicked to tame, 2007)

Among shakespearisms there are also a lot of cases when the original verb is substituted for another variant, which is almost equal semantically. The play "Macbeth" abounds in such examples. One of them is ‘applaud to the echo’ ("Macbeth"), where the verb applaud can be replaced with the verb cheer.

  Not many Nationalists would applaud Mrs. Thatcher to the echo: her intransigence and belligerence have been a source of conflict.(Running out of excuses. Belfast/London, 1991)

‘Piss off, Clasper, you've had your day!’ yelled a burly figure at the back of the crowd, who was cheered to the echo for his advice.(Kilby, M., Man at the sharp end, 1991)

Another example is the idiom to win golden opinions ("Macbeth"). Here we can use a verb to win instead the verb to buy, both variants are possible and semantically equal.

...record the annals, and the School band, who won golden opinions for themselves. (Tom Hiney, Raymond Chandler, 1999)

Your pure heart and lofty spirit will win you golden opinions wherever you go.(Roger Zelazny, Robert Sheckley, Bring Me the Head of Prince Charming, 1991)

In the shakespearism thrust something down somebody’s throat ("Titus Andronicus") several substitutions for the verb thrust are possible. It can be the verb to cram or to ram.

He rammed the mouthpiece down my throat so that the reed scraped the roof of my mouth. (James Frey, A Million Little Pieces, 2003)

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I waited for the tentacle to thrust its way down my throat.( Jodi Picoult, Plain Truth, 2000)

There are cases where many substitutions of different parts of speech are made simultaneously. The shakespearism to bear a charmed life ("Macbeth") is one of such idioms. There are several variants of substitutions in it. The verb to bear can be changed for to have or to load . These variations were first mentioned by A.V. Kunin.

 What I'm not prepared to accept is that he's entitled to lead a charmed life while others struggle and falter and fail.(  Goddard, Robert, Into the blue, 1990)

You must have a charmed life.( Anderson, Caroline, The spice of life, 1993)

According to his biographer, Henry Bordeaux, even when he landed he remained in a trance ‘as if electrified by the fluid still passing through his frame’ Though through so many dogfights he seemed to bear a charmed life, this kind of nervous impulsiveness seemed bound to lead to disaster. (Horne, Alistair, The price of glory, 1993)

Not just a verb, but a noun can be substituted in this idiom. The noun existence can be used instead of life. The second variant is not so frequently used as the original one, but it is exists.

However, there are also examples of the changing the voice of the verb in original shakespearism. This phenomenon can be illustrated by the example of the idiom lay it on with a trowel ("Merchant of Venice") which W. Shakespeare used only in the passive voice. In modern literature we can find contexts where it is used in the active voice.

I really laid your crimes on with a trowel.’(Howard, Stephanie, Battle for love, 1991)

Sometimes the word order in original Shakespearian phrase can be changed. We can observe it in the shakespearism from "King Henry IV" the better part of valour is discretion which nowadays is a part of English but with another word order: discretion is the better part of valour.

As my aunt Loulane would say, were she alive to say it, "discretion is the better part of valour." (Brian Schofield, Selling Your Father's Bones, 2011)

The next example is an interesting case of contamination of two shakespearisms gild refined gold and paint the lily. As a result we have a new idiom to gild the lily ("King John").

"Sorry, Cam, had to gild the lily. (Sarah Bird, The Gap Year, 2011)

However, not only the form of shakespearisms can be changed. Sometimes they retain their form, but lose their original meaning. For example, we can speak about units with the different interpretation of its components.

One of such units is the idiom the milk of human kindness ("Macbeth") which sounds as a reproach with an excessive softness coming out of Macbeth's mouth. For her the milk of human kindness is distasteful stuff—no self-respecting man has any use for it. Therefore, when we use the phrase to approve of someone's compassion, we reverse the original sentiment. In modern English this idiom is used with a positive connotation or as a joke or irony.

Dear old Martha had much of the milk of human kindness about her; she had pensioners who shared with her such things as she had: one was a lame robin redbreast, who came and sat on a bush opposite the door till he was fed; another was a pigeon whose cot was quite a mile away: she too looked for a meal on every visit, and after gathering her crop-full, would wing her flight over the fields and houses home to her cot. (Hedderwick, Mairi, Highland journey,1992)

Another idiom from "Macbeth" pride of place also almost completely changed its meaning. In Shakespearian times this idiom was used with the preposition in and was adverbial. Nowadays it is a nominative unit, which does not need any article. It means ‘a person or thing that gives people a feeling of pleasure or satisfaction or the feeling that you are better or more important than other people’.

The famous paragraph of Article 42 intending to give pride of place to the Roman catholic church in the state was removed by referendum in 1972, along with the accompanying paragraph recognizing other existing religious groups. (Fulton, John, The tragedy of belief, 1991)

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