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21 Evaluate the theoretical and pracical values of Lexicology. Express your points of view.

The theoretical value of lexicology becomes obvious if we realize that it forms the study of one of the three main aspects of language: its vocabulary, grammar and sound system. Lexicology came into being to meet the needs of many different branches of applied linguistics, namely of lexicography, literary criticism, standardization of terminology, information retrieval and foreign language teaching. It is particularly useful in building up the learner’s vocabulary by an effective selection, grouping and analysis of new words. A good knowledge of the system of word-formation furnishes a tool helping the student to guess and retain in his memory the meaning of new words on the basis of their motivation and by comparing and contrasting them with the previously learned elements and patterns. Lexicology not only gives a systematic description of the present make-up of the vocabulary, but also helps students to master the literary standards of word usage. An exact knowledge of the vocabulary system is also necessary in connection with technical teaching means.

22 Explain the semantic change from the denotational point of view.

From the denotational point of view result of semantic change is generalization or widening of meaning. In that case the scope of the new notion is wider than that of the original one, whereas the content of the notion is poorer. In most cases generalization is combined with a higher order of abstraction than in the notion expressed by the earlier meaning. The process went very far in the word thing with its original meanings “cause”, “object”, “decision”. At present, as a result of this process of generalization, the word can substitute nearly any noun. So, gen-n is broadening, widening or extension of meaning. Ex: person in OE – a man who wore masks.

23 Explain the semantic change from the connotational point of view.

From the connotational point of view result of semantic change is specialization. When the meaning is specialized the word can name fewer objects, have fewer referents. Spec-n is narrowing of meaning or restriction of meaning. It means a word passes from general sphere to some special sphere of communication. Ex: OE room meant a space, an are and now its meaning is narrowed – dining room, bath room etc. OE deor “wild beast” > ModE deer “wild reminant of a particular species”

25 Explain the productivity and non-productivity of affixes.

All morphemes are subdivided into two large classes: roots (or radicals) and affixes. . Words which consist of a root and an affix are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of word-building known as affixation or derivation.

The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. From the etymological point of view affixes are classified into the same two large groups as words: native and borrowed.

Affixes can also be classified into productive and non-productive types. By productive affixes we mean the ones, which take part in deriving new words in this particular period of language development. The best way to identify productive affixes is to look for them among neologisms and so-called nonce-words, i.e. words coined and used only for this particular occasion. Non-productive affixes which do not give any new coinages.

Noun-forming suffixes	-er, -ing, -ness, -ism, -ist, -ance
Adjective-forming suffixes	-y, -ish, -ed, -able, -less
Adverb-forming suffixes	-ly
Verb-forming suffixes	-ize, -ise, -ate
Prefixes	un-, re-, dis-

Noun-forming suffixes	-th, -hood
Adjective-forming suffixes	-ly, -some, -en, -ous
Verb-forming suffix	-en

26 Explain the native and borrowed affixes in English, give differences.

All morphemes are subdivided into two large classes: roots (or radicals) and affixes. The latter, in their turn, fall into prefixes which precede the root in the structure of the word and suffixes which follow the root. Words which consist of a root and an affix are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of word-building known as affixation or derivation.

The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. From the etymological point of view affixes are classified into the same two large groups as words: native and borrowed.

27 Evaluate each types of word-meaning, illustrate with examples.

Meaning is the inner form of the word. There are three main categories of definitions which may be referred to as : analytical or referential definition of meaning, functional or contextual definition of meaning, operational or information-oriented definition of meaning.

1) Analytical or referential definition of meaning seek to find out the essence of meaning establishing the interdependence between words of the objects or phenomena they denote. If we hear a sound-form a certain idea arises in our mind and the idea brings out a certain referent that exists in the reality. The dotted line suggests that there is no intermediate relation between word and referent, it is established only through the concept, because there are no objects or phenomena in the reality that predict a certain sound-form.

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2) Functional or contextual definition of meaning seeks that the true meaning of a word is to found by observing what a man does with it not what he says about it, the proponents of functional approach to meaning define it as the use of the word in the language. It has been suggested that the meaning of a word is revealed by substituting different contexts. Here the meaning of a linguistic unit may be studied only through its relation to other linguistic units.

3) Operational or information-oriented definition of meaning seeks to define meaning through its role in the process of communication. They are more interested in how the words work, how the meaning works than what the meaning is. Meaning is defined as information conveyed from the speaker to the listener in the process of communication.

Word-meaning is made up various components. These components are usually described as types of meaning. They are grammatical, lexical, part-of-speech, denotational, connotational, differential, distributional.

1) The Grammatical meaning may be defined as the component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words, as, e.g. the tense meaning in the word forms of verbs (asked, thought, walked) or the case meaning in the word forms of various nouns (girl’s, boy’s night’s). when we distinguish between the functional meaning which operates at various levels as the interrelation of various linguistic units and referential meaning as the interrelation of linguistic units and referents (or concepts). By grammatical meaning we designate the meaning proper to sets of word forms common to all words of a certain class.

2) The Lexical meaning is identical in all the forms of the word. They possess different grammatical meanings of tense, person and so on, but in each of these forms we find one and the same semantic component denoting the process of movement. By lexical meaning we designate the meaning proper to the given linguistic unit in all its forms and distributions.

3) The part-of-speech meaning is used to classify lexical items into major word-classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) and minor word-classes (articles, prepositions, conjunctions).

4) The Denotational or denotative meaning means that component of the lexical meaning which makes communication possible. To denote is to serve as linguistic expression for a notion or as a name for an actually existing object referred to by a word (also referential or extentional meaning) The first or given meaning of the words. Denotation- the expression of the main meaning, meaning proper of a linguistic unit.

5) The connotational or connotative meaning means the emotive charge and the stylistic value of the word. It means the emotive charge and the stylistic value of the word. The emotional content of the word is its capacity to evoke or directly express emotion (also called emotive charge, intentional or affective connotations of words). The figurative, secondary meaning of the words. Connotation- supplementary, complementary meaning or stylistic shade which is added to the word’s main meaning and which serves to express all sorts of emotional, expressive, evaluative overtones.

The emotional charge is one of the objective semantic features proper to words as linguistic units and forms part of the connotational component of meaning. But as for stylistic meaning of the word we mean their stylistic reference (about literary, neutral and colloquial layers).

6) The Distributional meaning is the meaning of the order and arrangement of morphemes making up the word. It is found in all words containing more than one morpheme.

7) The Differential meaning is the semantic component that serves to distinguish one word from all others containing identical morphemes. In words consisting of two or more morphemes one of the constituent morphemes always has differential meaning.

28 Formulate the differences between external and internal structures of a word.

The central topic of this paper is the analysis of the dialectical interdependency of internal and external in the theory of language as a symbolic system. Referring to and analyzing the philosophic legacy of W. von Humboldt, B. Russell, L. Wittgenstein, F. de Saussure and G. Spet, the author concludes that the dialectics of internal and external is not an accidental and episodic phenomenon of language. It rather is an intrinsic, ontological trait apart from which an adequate cognition of the essence of language is impossible. Taking the internal form as a logical structure, it is possible to view it as something "higher and fundamental" in language, something that is attainable more by intuition than by research. The internal intellectual base of this grammatical stability lies in the sphere of purely logical forms. If internal word formulations are related to and governed by the spirit, then the external forms in fact conceal an inner grammatical and syntactic edifice. The laws of external speech functioning are manifested, for example, in bilingualism, which may be viewed either as a social phenomenon related to individual thinking and classificatory abilities or as an evidence of the existence of common verbal structures in human consciousness. The author proposes to transfer such linguistic terms as "bilingualism" and "contamination" into a different context as a way of seeking new topical domains within the linguistic philosophy and the philosophy of language. The empiricism of specific language functioning in the form of bilingual language contamination brings us back to the assumption of the existence of uniform internal metalanguage structures of verbal thinking. By external structure of the word we mean its morphological structure. A morpheme is also an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern. But unlike a word it is not autonomous. Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words, not independently, that is why the morpheme may be defined as the minimum meaningful language unit. The internal structure of the word, or its meaning is nowadays commonly referred to as the word’s semantic structure. This certainly the word’s main aspect. The main unit of the lexical system of a language resulting from the association of a group of sounds with a meaning is a word. This unit is used in grammatical functions characteristic of it. It is the smallest language unit which can stand alone as a complete utterance.

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29 Give the right definitions on sound-interchange, word, polysemy.

A word having several meanings is called polysemantic and the ability of words to have more than one meaning is described by the term polysemy. Most English words are polysemantic. The system of meanings of any polysemantic word develops gradually, mostly over the centuries as more and more new meanings are either added to old ones, or oust some of them. So complicated process of polysemy development involve both the appearance of new meanings and the loss of old ones. One of the most important drawbacks of polysemantic words is that there is sometimes a chance of misunderstanding when a word is used in a certain meaning but accepted by a listener or reader in another. That is why context is a powerful preventative against any misunderstanding of meanings. It leads us to the conclusion that context is a good and reliable key to the meaning of the word.

A word is a unit of speech which serves the purposes of human communication. The complete correct definition of the word is a speech unit used for the purposes of communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, belong to grammatical employment and characterised by formal and semantic unity. Being the central element of any language system the word is a sort of focus for the problems of phonology, lexicology, syntax, morphology and also for some other sciences that have to deal with language and speech, such as philosophy, psychology and probably quite a few other branches of knowledge.

Sound-interchange They may be defined as an opposition in which words or word forms are differentiated due to an alternation in the phonemic composition of the root. Some sounds are changed to form a new word. vowel and consonant interchange. In nouns we have voiceless consonants and in verbs we have corresponding voiced consonants because in old English these consonants in nouns were at the end of the word and in verbs in the intervocal position. F: life-to live, blood-to bleed, hot-to heat, to sing-song.

30 Give the classification types of morphemes according to meaning and functions.

According to the functions and meaning morphemes can be divided into derivational, functional, productive and non-productive.

31 Give the types of morphemes according to the position, give examples.

According to the position morphemes can be divided into prefixes, suffixes and infixes.

Ex: prefixes of negative meaning, as in- , non-, un- (invaluable, nonformals, unfree)prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, as: inter-, hyper-, ex-, pre-, over- (interplanetary, hypertension, ex-student, preelection, overdrugging)

Ex: Some productive affixes

Noun-forming suffixes: -er, -ing, -ness, -ism, -ist, -ance(teacher,raeding,illness,realism, importance)

Adjective-forming suffixes: y, -ish, -ed, -able, -less(sunny,open-hearted,comparable,unless)

Adverb-forming suffixes: -ly(lovely)

Verb-forming suffixes: -ize, -ise, -ate(criticize,adaptate)

Some non-productive affixes

Noun-forming suffixes: -th, -hood(youth,childhood)

Adjective-forming suffixes: -ly, -some, -en, -ous(exactly,handsome,generous)

Verb-forming suffix: -en(heaven).

32 Give the general types of morphemes.

Morphemes are divided into two large groups: lexical and grammatical morphemes. Both lexical and grammatical morphemes can be free and bound. Free lexical morphemes are roots of words which express the lexical meaning of the word, they coincide with the stem of simple words. Free grammatical morphemes are function words: articles, conjunctions and prepositions.

Bound lexical morphemes are affixes: prefixes, suffixes and also blocked root morphemes. Bound grammatical morphemes are inflexions (endings).

According to the nature and the number of morphemes constituting a word there are different structural types of words in English: simple, derived, compound, compound-derived.

34 Give the links of Lexicology with other branches of linguistics.

The treatment of words in lexicology cannot be divorced from the study of all the other elements in the language system to which words belong. The connection of lexicology with phonetics is very important. This importance stands explained if we think of the fact that on the acoustic level words consist of phonemes and therefore phonemes participate in signification. Stylistics although from a different angel, studies many problems treated in lexicology. These are the problems of meaning, synonymy, differentiation of vocabulary acc. to the sphere of communication and some other issues. The difference and interconnection between grammar and lexicology is one of the important controversial issues in linguistics. A close connection between grammar and lexicology is conditioned by the manifold and inseverable ties between the objects of their study.

34 Give the differences between generalization and specialization of meanings.

Changes in the denotational meaning may result in the restriction of the types or range of referents denoted by the word. Restriction of meaning is called specialization of meaning or narrowing of meaning. It is gradual process when a word passes from a general sphere to some special sphere of communication. : the City –the business part of London, Oxford-university town in England, the Tower-originally a fortress and palace, later a prison, now-a museum, room – originally a space, now-dining room, sleeping room

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If the word with the extended meaning passes from the specialized vocabulary into common use, we describe the result of the semantic change as the generalization of meaning or broadening of meaning. F: the word borrowed into Middle English from old French where it was persone and came from Latin persona “the mask used by an actor, one who plays a part, a character in a play”

35 Give the major types of word-formation and give examples.

1) Words formed as grammatical syntagmas, combinations of full linguistic signs (types: compounding (словосложение), prefixation, suffixation, conversion, and back derivation)

2) Words, which are not grammatical syntagmas, which are not made up of full linguistic signs.

Ex.: expressive symbolism, blending, clipping, rhyme & some others.

Common for both groups is that a new word is based on synchronic relationship between morphemes.

Different types of word formation:

COMPOUNDING Is joining together 2 or more stems.Types: 1) Without a connecting element
     headache, heartbreak 2) With a vowel or consonant as a linking element
     speedometer, craftsman 3) With a preposition or conjunction as a linking element
    down-and-out (в ужасном положении, опустошенный)
    son-in-law

Prefixes are such particles that can be prefixed to full words. But are they not with independent existence.

Native prefixes have developed out of independent words; there is a small number of them.

   a-, be-, mid-, fore-, mis-, Æt-, Ed-

SUFFIXATION

A suffix is a derivative final element, which is or was productive in forming new words. It has semantic value, but doesn’t occur as an independent speech use. The contact of English with foreign languages has led to the adoption of countless foreign words, which started to be used in word building. → we have many hybrid types of derivatives. A hybrid is a word different element of which are of etymologically different origin.  – full - less,  - ness, clearness, faithless, faithful

2) Foreign affixes are added to native word – ance, - al, - ity, - able,  Eatable, Loveable

 CONVERSION A certain stem is used for the formation of a categorically different word without a derivative element being added.
     Bag – to bag
     Back – to back
     Bottle – to bottle
This specific pattern is very productive in English. The most popular types are noun → verb or verb → noun
     To take off – a take off
36 Give the aims and principles of morphemic analysis.

A synchronic description of the English vocabulary deals with its present-day system and its patterns of word-formation by comparing words simultaneously existing in it.1 If the analysis is limited to stating the number and type of morphemes that make up the word, it is referred to as morphemic. For instance, the word girlishness may be analysed into three morphemes: the root -girl- and two suffixes -ish and -ness. The morphemic classification of words is as follows: one root morpheme — a root word (girl), one root morpheme plus one or more affixes — a derived word (girlish, girlishness), two or more stems — a compound word (girl-friend), two or more stems and a common affix — a compound derivative (old-maidish). The morphemic analysis establishes only the ultimate constituents that make up the word. A structural word-formation analysis proceeds further: it studies the structural correlation with other words, the structural patterns or rules on which words are built. This is done with the help of the principle of oppositions, i.e. by studying the partly similar elements, the difference between which is functionally relevant; in our case this difference is sufficient to create a new word. Girl and girlish are members of a morphemic opposition. They are similar as the root morpheme -girl- is the same. Their distinctive feature is the suffix -ish. Due to this suffix the second member of the opposition is a different word belonging to a different part of speech. This binary opposition comprises two elements. А соrrelatiоn is a set of binary oppositions. It is composed of two subsets formed by the first and the second elements of each couple, i.e. opposition. Each element of the first set is coupled with exactly one element of the second set and vice versa. Each second element may be derived from the corresponding first element by a general rule valid for all members of the relation (see p. 26). Observing the proportional opposition: girl child woman monkey spinster book girlish childish womanish monkeyish spinsterish bookish it is possible to conclude that there is in English a type of derived adjectives consisting of a noun stem and the suffix -ish. Observation also shows that the stems are mostly those of animate nouns, and permits us to define the relationship between the structural pattern of the word and its meaning. Any one word built according to this pattern contains a semantic component common to the whole group, namely: ‘typical of, or having the bad qualities of. There are also some other uses of the adjective forming ‘ish, but they do not concern us here. In the above example the results of morphemic analysis and the structural word-formation analysis practically coincide. There are other cases, however, where they are of necessity separated. The morphemic analysis is, for instance, insufficient in showing the difference between the structure of inconvenience v and impatience n; it classifies both as derivatives. From the point of view of word-formation pattern, however, they are fundamentally different. It is only the second that is formed by derivation. Compare: impatience n = patience n = corpulence n impatient a patient a corpulent a The correlation that can be established for the verb inconvenience is different, namely: inconvenience v = pain v = disgust v = anger v = daydream v inconvenience n pain n disgust n anger n daydream n Here nouns denoting some feeling or state are correlated with verbs causing this feeling or state, there being no difference in stems between the members of each separate opposition. Whether different pairs in the correlation are structured similarly or differently is irrelevant. Some of them are simple root words, others are derivatives or compounds. In terms of word-formation we state that the verb inconvenience when compared with the noun inconvenience shows relationships characteristic of the process of conversion. Cf. to position where the suffix -tion does not classify this word as an abstract noun but shows it is derived from one. This approach also affords a possibility to distinguish between compound words formed by composition and those formed by other processes. The words honeymoon n and honeymoon v are both compounds, containing two free stems, yet the first is formed by composition: honey n + moon n > honeymoon n, and the second by conversion: honeymoon n> honeymoon v (see Ch. 8). The treatment remains synchronic because it is not the origin of the word that is established but its present correlations in the vocabulary and the patterns productive in present-day English, although sometimes it is difficult to say which is the derived form. The analysis into immediate constituents described below permits us to obtain the morphemic structure and provides the basis for further word-formation analysis.

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38 Speculate on the theoretical and practical importance of Lexicology.

The importance of English lexicology is based not on the size of its vocabulary, however big it is, but on the fact that at present it is the world’s most widely used language. One of the most fundamental works on the English language of the present — “A Grammar of Contemporary English” by R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum, G. Leech and J. Svartvik (1978) — gives the following data: it is spoken as a native language by nearly three hundred million people in Britain, the United States, Ireland, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa and some other countries. The knowledge of English is widely spread geographically — it is in fact used in all continents. It is also spoken in many countries as a second language and used in official and business activities there. This is the case in India, Pakistan and many other former British colonies. English is also one of the working languages of the United Nations and the universal language of international aviation. More than a half world’s scientific literature is published in English and 60% of the world’s radio broadcasts

are in English. For all these reasons it is widely studied all over the world as a foreign language.

The theoretical value of lexicology becomes obvious if we realise that it forms the study of one of the three main aspects of language, i.e. its vocabulary, the other two being its grammar and sound system. The theory of meaning was originally developed within the limits of philosophical science. The relationship between the name and the thing named has in the course of history constituted one of the key questions in gnostic theories and therefore in the struggle of materialistic and idealistic trends. The idealistic point of view assumes that the earlier forms of words disclose their real correct meaning, and that originally language was created by some superior reason so that later changes of any kind are looked upon as distortions and corruption.

The materialistic approach considers the origin, development and current use of words as depending upon the needs of social communication. The dialectics of its growth is determined by its interaction with the development of human practice and mind. In the light of V. I. Lenin’s theory of reflection we know that the meanings of words reflect objective reality. Words serve as names for things, actions, qualities, etc. and by their modification become better adapted to the needs of the speakers. This proves the fallacy of one of the characteristic trends in modern idealistic linguistics, the so-called Sapir-Whorf thesis according to which the linguistic system of one’s native language not only expresses one’s thoughts but also determines them. This view is incorrect, because our mind reflects the surrounding world not only through language but also directly.

Lexicology came into being to meet the demands of many different branches of applied linguistics, namely of lexicography, standardisation of terminology, information retrieval, literary criticism and especially of foreign language teaching.

Its importance in training a would-be teacher of languages is of a quite special character and cannot be overestimated as it helps to stimulate a systematic approach to the facts of vocabulary and an organised comparison of the foreign and native language. It is particularly useful in building up the learner’s vocabulary by an effective selection, grouping and analysis of new words. New words are better remembered if they are given not at random but organised in thematic groups, word-families, synonymic series, etc.

A good knowledge of the system of word-formation furnishes a tool helping the student to guess and retain in his memory the meaning of new words on the basis of their motivation and by comparing and contrasting them with the previously learned elements and patterns.

The knowledge, for instance, of the meaning of negative, reversative and pejorative prefixes and patterns of derivation may be helpful in understanding new words. For example such words as immovable a, deforestation n and miscalculate v will be readily understood as ‘that cannot be moved’, ‘clearing land from forests’ and ‘to calculate wrongly’.

By drawing his pupils’ attention to the combining characteristics of words the teacher will prevent many mistakes.¹ It will be word-groups falling into patterns, instead of lists of unrelated items, that will be presented in the classroom.

A working knowledge and understanding of functional styles and stylistic synonyms is indispensable when literary texts are used as a basis for acquiring oral skills, for analytical reading, discussing fiction and translation. Lexicology not only gives a systematic description of the present make-up of the vocabulary, but also helps students to master the literary standards of word usage. The correct use of words is an important counterpart of expressive and effective speech.

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