1) systematize the main notions of syntax and illustrate with examples

2) Point out the basic features of phrase and give examples

“phrase” every combination pf two or more words which is a grammatical unit but is not an analytical form of some word. The constituent elements of a phrase may belong to any part of speech, they may both be nouns, or one of them may be adjective and the other a noun, or again one of them may be a verb and the other a noun, or one may be a preposition and the other a noun, or there may be three of them, one being a preposition, the other a noun, and the third a preposition. The inconvenience of restricting the notion of phrase to those groups which contain at least two notional words is that, for example, the group “preposition+ noun” remains outside the classifications and is therefore neglected in grammatical theory.

A phrase is a means of naming some phenomena or processes, just as a words is. Each component of a phrase can undergo grammatical changes in accordance with grammatical categories represented in it, without destroying the identity of the phrase. In the phrase write letters the first component can change according to the verbal categories of tense, mood and the second component according to the category of number. Thus, writes a letter, has written a letter etc.

3)Formulate the definitions of subject

Ответ №14

4) Speak about the classification of phrase according the structure

The phrase was considered to be any syntactical group of notional words agreed with each other. At present phrase is considered to be every combination of two or more words which are grammatical unique not an analytical form of some words. Phrase may denote: complete, an action, a quality. The type “noun+noun” is a most usual type of phrase in Modern English, the type “noun in the common case+ noun” may be used to denote one idea as modified by another, in widest sense, the type “noun in the genitive case+case” has a more restricted meaning and use, the type “verb+noun” may correspondent to two different types of relations between an action and a thing.

5) Speak about classification of phrase according to the head component

A syntactical relations between the component of the phrase is the syntactical bond. The are two theories concerning the types of syntactic bond. Professor Ilyish distinguishes two main syntactical reltions between components of a phrase: agreement, government. Agreement is a method of expressing a syntactical relationship which consists of making subordinate words take a form similar to that of a word to which it is subordinate. Government is the use of the certain form of the subordinate word, required by its head but not, coincide with the form of the head word etc.

6) Give general characteristic of the sentence

Sentence- is a communication unit and intentionally marked, make up words, contains subject and predicate, expresses, complete idea or asks questions. The notion of sentence has not so far received a satisfactory definition, which would enable us by applying it in every particular case to find out whether a certain linguistic unit was a sentence or not. According structural aspect – simple, composite, types of sentence according to types of communication- declarative, interrogative, imperative

7)classification of a phrase according to the structure. Ответ № 4

8) general peculiarities of the sentence and it classification

Sentences  may  be  classified  according  to structure   (simple,    compound,   complex,   and COMPOUND-COMPLEX    SENTENCE.— compound-complex)  or  according  to  meaning A   compound-complex   sentence   consists   of   a (declarative,  imperative,  interrogative,  and compound   sentence   (one   with   two   or   more exclamatory). These classifications are discussed independent clauses) and at least one dependent in  the  following  paragraphs. clause.  For  example: SIMPLE SENTENCE.— A simple sentence is one that consists of a single independent clause and no subordinate clauses. The simple sentence always  contains  one  subject  and  one  verb.  For example: The  command  chaplain  supervised  the program. COMPOUND  SENTENCE.—  A  compound sentence has two or more independent clauses that are related in thought and joined by one or more coordinating   conjunctions.   For   example: The chapel fund administrator is rewriting this  instruction,  and he will submit his draft to the  command  chaplain  for  approval. Some of the employees who worked during the war years have retired, but many of them are still  employed  in  the  same  office. The  words  “who  worked  during  the  war  years” form   the   dependent   clause.   “Some   of   the employees have retired” and “many of them are still  employed  in  the  same  office”  are  the independent  clauses  and  could  stand  alone  as  two complete  sentences. DECLARATIVE  SENTENCE.—  A  declara- tive sentence is one that makes a statement. Such a  sentence  ends  with  a  period.  The  normal grammatical  order  of  the  parts  of  a  declarative sentence   is   the   subject   first   followed   by   the predicate  with  all  its  modifiers.  For  example: I found her  book  on  my  desk. “And”  is  the  coordinating  conjunction  in  this example.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  above “I”  is  the  subject;  “found”  is  the  predicate;  and example could have been written as two complete “book”  is  the  object  in  this  example

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According to structural features: simple and composite; two-member and one- member sentences. Elliptical and one-member sentences:
e.g. Marvelous! Horrible! How very interesting! e.g. No birds singing at the dawn (Strong resemblance to 2 member sentences).e.g. I saw him there. Yesterday (parselation).

According to the purpose of the utterance: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory, ? optative. Prof.Ilyish: before dividing sentences into 3 classes we should divide them into emotional and non-emotional and within emotional we can establish 4 classes.

9) Main principles of classification of the sentence.

Classifications of a sentence according to the structure are divided into two- simple(one member, two member), composite(complex, compound), classification of a sentence according to the iterance(declarative, exclamatory, interrogative), Classifications of a sentence according to the semantics (theme, rheme), Classifications of a sentence according to the purpose of atriums, Classifications of a sentence according to the structure-all the sentences may be divided into simple and composite

10) classification of sentence according to the structure

All sentence may divided into simple and composite. Simple sentences ate divided into one member and two member. Primary member of a sentence: subject and predicate. Secondary members: object, adverbial modifier, attributive

One traditional scheme for classifying English sentences is by the number and types of finite clauses:

• A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause with no dependent clauses.

• A compound sentence consists of multiple independent clauses with no dependent clauses. These clauses are joined together using conjunctions, punctuation, or both.

• A complex sentence consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause.

• A complex-compound sentence (or compound-complex sentence) consists of multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has at least one dependent clause.

11) Simple sentence. Main features of the simple sentence.

It has been usual for some time now to classify sentences into two-member and one-member sentences. SIMPLE SENTENCE— A simple sentence is one that consists of a single independent clause and no subordinate clauses. The simple sentence always  contains  one  subject  and  one  verb.  For example: The  command  chaplain  supervised  the program. Simple sentence comprises a subject and a predicate (as well as secondary parts of a sentence): She (subject) invited (predicate) us to dinner. It requires a subject and a verb. We ordinarily include some additonal words that explain the subject. The sentence or a part of a sentence that contains a subject and a verb and constitutes a complete thought is called an independent clause. I like English. The sentence above conveys a complete thought. The subject is I, and the verb is like. The word English conveys an understanding of what the subject likes. The sentence has one independent clause and is a simple sentence. Observe the arrangement or sequence of sentence components: subject, verb, other parts of the sentence. This arrangement is not mandatory, but sentences written in this format are usually easy to understand.

12) one member sentence. It peculiarities.

Its subject and predicate. One member is a sentence which contains one of the primary member of a sentence. There are sentences which do not contain two such separate parts, in this sentences there is only one main part is not there and it could not even be supplied, at least not without a violent change in the structure of the sentence( fire! Come on!) or opening sentence of (dusk-of a summer night)

13. Simple sentence. Two member sentence

In a sentence like helen sighed there obviosly are two main parts: helen, which denotes the doer of the action and is called subject, and sighed, which denotes the action performed by the subject and is called predicate. Sentences having this basic structure, a word to denote the doer of the action and another word to denote the action, are termed two-member sentences

13. subject and it types

the subject is one of the two main of the sentence. It denotes the thing whose action or characteristic is expressed by the predicate. It not dependent on any other part of the sentence. It may be expressed by different parts of speech, the most frequent ones being: a noun in the common case, a personal pronoun in the nominative case, a demonstrative pronoun occasionally, a substantivized adjective, a numeral, an infinitive, an a gerund. In discussing problems of the subject, we must mention the argument that has been going on for some time about sentences of the following type: it give Hermione a sudden convulsive sensation of pleasure, to see these rich colours under the candlelight. Two views have been put forward concerning such sentences. One is, that the pronoun it at the beginning of the sentence is the formal subject, and the real subject is the infinitive. The other view is, that it is the subject of the sentence, and the infinitive an apposition to it. The second view seems hard to justify in general syntactical theory.

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13. Predicate and its types

The predicate is one of the two main parts of the sentence. It denotes the action or properly of the thing expressed by the subject. It is not dependent on any other part of the sentence. Ways of expressing the predicate are varied and their structure will better be considered under the heading of types of predicate. Here it will suffice to say that among them are: a finite verb form, and a variety of phrases, for instance, phrases of the following patterns: “finite verb+infinitive”, “link verb+ noun”, “link verb+ adjective”, “link verb+ preposition+noun”. The assertion that the predicate is not dependent on any other part of the sentence, including the subject, requires some comment.

16)Secondary member in the sentence

The usual classification of these parts into objects, attributes, and adverbial modifiers is familiar to everyone, no matter what his mother tongue may be and what foreign languages he may study. The object is usually defined in some such way as this: it is a secondary part of the sentence, referring to a part of the sentence expressed by a verb, a noun, a substantival pronoun, an adjective, a numeral on, which is a result of the action, in reference to which an action, in reference to which an action is committed or a property is manifested, or denoting an action as object of another action. Adverbial modifier-it’s a secondary part of the sentence modifying a part of the sentence expressed by a verb, a verbal noun, an adjective, and serving to characterize an action or a property as to its quality or intensity, or to indicate the way an action is done, the time, place, cause, purpose which the action or the manifestation of the quality is connected

17) Object and it types

Object differ from one another, on the one hand, by their morphological composition, that is by the parts of speech or phrases which perform the function of object, in some cases objects modifying a part of the sentence expressed by a verb form differ by the type of their relation to the action expressed by the verb. Non-prepositional and prepositional objects may sometimes be hard to distinguish from adverbial modifiers. An object may expressed by a noun, a pronoun, a substantivized adjective, an infinitive, and a gerund. The classification of object into direct and indirect ones applies only to objects expressed by nouns or pronouns. The question of direct and indirect objects is also connected with one type of object expressed by a phrase, namely that one of the patterns “to+noun or pronoun”

18)dwell on the problem of the syntactic bond

A syntactical relations between the component of the phrase is the syntactical bond. The are two theories concerning the types of syntactic bond. Продолжение ответ#19

19) Agreement and government as two main types of syntactic relations.

A syntactical relations between the component of the phrase is the syntactical bond. The are two theories concerning the types of syntactic bond. Professor Ilyish distinguishes two main syntactical reltions between components of a phrase: agreement, government. Agreement is a method of expressing a syntactical relationship which consists of making subordinate words take a form similar to that of a word to which it is subordinate. As to the problem of agreement of the verb with the noun or pronoun denoting the subject of the action (a child plays, children play), this is controversial problem. The fact that sentences like My family is small, and My family are early risers exist side by side proves that there is no agreement of the verb with the noun in either case: the verb shows whether the subject of the action is to be thought of as singular or plural, no matter what the category of number in the noun may be.

Government is the use of the certain form of the subordinate word, required by its head but not, coincide with the form of the head word etc. the role of government in modern English is almost as insignificant as that of agreement. The only thing that may be termed government is the use of the objective case of personal pronouns and of the pronoun who when they are subordinate to a verb or follow a preposition.

Even this type of government is, however, made somewhat doubtful by the rising tendency.

20) three types of aspect in English language: semantic, pragmatic, structural

21) Basic features of object. Ответ №17

22) state out the main of adverbial modifier.

The word “adverbial ” may give rise to two notions, both of them wrong. For one thing, we may suppose that an adverbial modifier is always expressed by an adverb, which of course is not true: an adverbial modifier may be expressed by different morphological means. There are several ways of classifying adverbial modifiers: according to their meaning, according to their morphological peculiarities, according to the type of their head word. A complete classification of adverbial modifiers according to their meaning, a list of all possible meaning they can have, is impossible to achieve, and it would serve no useful purpose. As to classification according to morphological peculiarities, it can probably be made exhaustive, although some of the morphological types are met with every seldom unit

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Another type of adverbial modifier is the phrase pattern “preposition+ noun”. This type of adverbial modifier is one of those which are sometimes indistinguishable from object, or rather where the distinction between object and adverbial modifier is neutralized.

23) comment on the main features of the attribute

An attribute can either precede or follow the noun it modifiers. Accordingly we use the terms “prepositive” and “postpositive” attribute. The position of an attribute with respect to its head word depends partly on the morphological peculiarities of the attribute itself, and partly on stylistic factors. The size of a prepositive attribute phrase can be large in Modern English. This is mainly due to the fact that whatever is included between the article and the noun , is apprehended as an attribute to the noun. The problem can best be approached in the following way. If we take the sentence: history only emerged in the eighteenth century as a literary art… we shall have to choose between two views: in the century is in adverbial modifier of time; eighteenth is an attribute; in the eighteenth century is an adverbial modifier of time and is a secondary member of the sentence, modifying the predicate verb emerged.

24) dwell of the problem of the complex sentence

A complex sentence contains an independent clause and a subordinate clause. The independent clause can function as a complete sentence. The subordinate clause also contains a subject and a verb but cannot function as an independent sentence. We surveyed the damage as the wind subsided. We surveyed the damage. This is an independent clause and a complete sentence. The words convey a complete thought. The words as the wind subsided form a subordinate clause. The words do not convey an intelligent thought that can stand alone as a sentence. If we modify as the wind subsided so that it becomes The wind subsided, we realize that it contains both a subject and a verb. The words as the wind subsided constitute an adverbial expression that describes a condition that existed when we surveyed the damage.

25) complex sentence subordinate clauses ответ24

26) give general information of the complex sentence ответ24

27) types of subordinate clauses

The problem of classifying subordinate clauses is one of the vexed questions of syntactic theory. Several system have been tried out at various times, and practically each of them has been shown to suffer from some drawback or other it is quite conceivable that a sort of combined principle will have to be evolved, that is, one principle might be taken as the ruling one, and the main types established in accordance with it, and another principle, or perhaps other principles, taken as secondary ones and and applied for a further subdivision of clauses obtained according to the first principle the first opposition in the sphere of principles would seem to be that between meaning, or contents, and syntactical function/ but this opposition is not in itself sufficient to determine the possible variants of classification. The term “relative clause” may very well be applied to any clause introduction by a relative pronoun or relative adverb. In accordance with Jespersen general view that element of language may be divided into primaries, adjuncts, and subjuncts, he treats the syntactical functions of subordinate clauses as falling under these heads: “relative clauses as primaries” and “relative clause adjuncts.” From the viewpoint of function the subordinate clauses of these types are of course quite different, yet they may be all termed “relative clauses”. This makes it evident that the notion “relative clause” is not a notion of syntactic function, since it cuts right across syntactical divisons.

28) Types of subordinate clauses and give the examples. ответ №27

29) give general information about compound sentence

A compound sentence contains two independent clauses. Two independent clauses may be joined by a comma and a conjunction, or by a semicolon, or by a colon. The school year ends June 1st, but the sports program will continue throughout the summer.
We accept the design; it meets our standards.
The school board funded the computer laboratory; consequently, computer classes will be offered next year.
The judge has decided the case, and he ruled as follows:  "The court finds the defendant guilty and sentences him to time served."

You can write as many independent clauses and subordinate clauses into a single sentence as your imagination will support. However, reader comprehension declines as complexity increases. COMPOUND  SENTENCE.—  A  compound sentence has two or more independent clauses that are related in thought and joined by one or more coordinating   conjunctions.   For   example: The chapel fund administrator is rewriting this  instruction,  and he will submit his draft to the  command  chaplain  for  approval. Some of the employees who worked during the war years have retired, but many of them are still  employed  in  the  same  office. The  words  “who  worked  during  the  war  years” form   the   dependent   clause.   “Some   of   the employees have retired” and “many of them are still  employed  in  the  same  office”  are  the independent  clauses  and  could  stand  alone  as  two complete  sentences.

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30) give the full information about subordination and coordination Ответ №27 и ответ №29

31 ) define the classification of the sentence according to the purpose of utterance

• A declarative sentence or declaration, the most common type, commonly makes a statement: I am going home.

• An interrogative sentence or question is commonly used to request information — When are you going to work? — but sometimes not; see rhetorical question.

• An exclamative sentence or exclamation is generally a more emphatic form of statement expressing emotion: What a wonderful day this is!

• An imperative sentence or command tells someone to do something: "Go to work at 7:30 in the morning".

• Most of the sentences we speak or write are declarative sentences.

• declarative sentences
  My parents keep telling me that I should make good grades so I can get a job or go to college.

• We frequently ask questions, perhaps not as frequently as we should.

• interrogative sentences
  What time does the movie start?
  How many people from your graduating class went to college?
  People who have authority use imperative sentences. Sometimes, people who don't have authority use imperative sentences. The results may differ.

• imperative sentences
  Wash the car.
  Please donate to the community charity fund.

• We say that sentences must have a subject and a verb. Note that some of the above sentences do not seem to have a subject. The subject is implied, and the implied subject is you. You wash the car. You clean up your room. You is a second person pronoun. It isn't possible to make a command statement in first person or third person.

• Exclamatory sentences are rarely used in expository writing. Spoken exclamations are often a single word or an incomplete sentence. Grammarians indicate that formal exclamatory sentences begin with the word what or with the word how. Most of the exclamations we encounter are informal.

• exclamatory sentences
  What did you do to your hair! (exclamation formed as a question)
  I just won 500 dollars! (exclamation formed as a declarative sentence)

• How do you know if a sentence is a question? Well, according to commedians Bud Abbot and Lou Costello, it depends on the punctuation mark.
  "Who's on first."

32) the problems of negative sentence

There are several points of view on these problem. A.M.Peshkovsky and V.V.Vinogradov at the category of negation into the circle of modal relations up to the acknowledgement of listing of the so-called “negative mood”. A.A.Shahmatov, E.I.Shendels, S.A.Vasylyeva consider the negation as an independent grammar category which does not depend on the category of modality. Forms of expressing negative meaning: declarative, interrogative, imperative. Grammatical- by means of the auxiliary verb and particle “not”, number of negative conjunctions “nor, neither…nor, unless”-me? You don’t want to know about me. Isn’t it enough that I’m here?

Lexico-grammatical- by means of pronouns “no, nobody, none, nothing” adverbs “neither, neither, no how, nowhere”- Gosh, I’d never measure up to that lot.

Lexical- by means of affixes “un-, in-, ir-, il-, dis-, non-, less”, some verbs “fail, lack”-Christine might at any moment whip off cap and break into all illegal song and dance.

Syntax- through employing some stable patterns “I wish I knew…”- … that I wished it had been me instead of him

33) exclamatory sentence and type of exclamation

Ответ №31

34) interrogative sentence and its types

Ответ №31

35) give general information about compound sentence

Ответ № 29

36) speak about the type of adverbial modifier

Ответ № 22

37) speak about the function of subordinate clause

Corresponding function in a simple sentence, we may call them noun clauses, or substantive clauses, which is a very usual way of treating them in English school grammars. From the functional point of view it may be called an attributive clause, and if we compare it to the part of speech which might perform the corresponding function in a simple sentence, we may call it an adjective clause, which is also common in English school grammar. O.Jespersen devotes several chapters of his book “ a modern English grammar” to relative clauses. In accordance with his general view that elements of language may be divided into primaries, adjuncts, and subjuncts, he treats the syntactical functions of subordinate clauses as falling under these heads: “relative clauses as primaries” and “relative clause adjuncts”. From the viewpoint of function the subordinate clauses of these types are of course quite different, yet they may be all termed “relative clauses”. This makes it evident that the notion “relative clause”is not a notion of syntactic functions, since it cuts right across syntactical divisions

38) give general information about the primary members of the sentence

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