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Ответ № 14, 15
39) classification of the sentence according the semantic aspect
The theme expresses the starting point of the communication, denotes an object or a phenomenon about which something is reported. Theme has minimum new information. The rheme expresses the basic informative part of the communication, its contextually relevant center. Rheme has minimum semantic- contextual weight and maximum new information the position: the theme may not coincide with the subject of the sentence, and
The rheme with the predicate. Theme-subject, rheme-predicate(walter-(theme) shook his head- (rheme). Theme-predicate, rheme- subject(at their feet, with mighty, formidable sluggishness, silent, mysterious and fatal, flowerd the river), the “rheme” in a declarative sentence may be defined(he gave me pills to take). The rheme in an interrogative sentence is the interrogative pronoun itself, as the main center of the utterance(what speed was I doing and when exactly had I seen him and why was I so slow in putting on the brakes). The rheme in an imperative sentence-is the verb itself, as it express the inducement(run along, Heidi), in a composite sentence- there may be several syntactic layers, arranged by different types of theme-rhemic lines
40) classification of the sentence according the structural aspect
Ответ № 11, 24
41) classification of the sentence according pragmatic aspect
Many questions concerning functional sentence perspective have not been solved yet and further investigation is required. It is by no means certain that every sentence can be divided into two clear-cut parts representing the theme and the rheme respectively. In many cases there are probably intermediate elements, not belonging unequivocally to this or that part, though perhaps tending rather one may or another. J.Firbas in his analysis of English functional sentence perspective has very subtly pointed out these intermediate elements and described their function. The problem of functional sentence perspective, which appears to be one of the essential problems of modern linguistic study, requires further careful investigation before a complete theory of all phenomena belonging to this sphere can be worked out. The main principles and starting point have, however, been clarified to a degree sufficient to make such future studies fruitful and promising
42) dwell of the problem of the sentence analysis. distributional model
The distributional modal of Ch. Fries is more accurate, precise. Ch. Fries divided all the words in four classes. He insisted that such terms as “subject, predicate, etc.” have no relation to the actual facts pr a situation in the reak word. Group D- modifiers-are word which can modify each of the four parts of speech as a head-word: a)with class 1 as a head- word -he had heavy black eyebrows, b)with class 2 as a head-word: matty came running forward, c)with class 3 as head-word: pecines are terribly sencitive,d) with class 4 as a head-word: he came too sadden, with certain functions words as head: we had this beautiful statuette made, Joey running with the ball at his feet, just like him, just about to kick it., d) this model also has some demerits
43) sentence analyses. IC modal.
According to this model the sentence should be divided into “immediate constituents” where-NP-noun phrase,
VP-verb phrase, N- noun, V- verb, A-adjective, D- adverb, t- article, pr- pronoun. So this model includes the distributional model, but this model can show the difference between the abovementioned structures. Demerits- the modal sometimes cannot distinguish one sentence from another. He was easy to please
44) transformational modal
Created by Homskii, tries to solve this problem. Thought this model includes IC model, but it goes farther. There are two kinds of sentences: kernel- basic fundamental, and transform- a deriving form from the kernel. There are two kinds of transformational rules- obligatory and optional. This model can explain the difference between the abovementioned sentences: he was eager to please and he was easy to please
45) what is the parts of sentence model
Ответ №14,15,16,17
46) the kernel sentence. Its peculiarities
Ответ № 14, 15
47) notional parts of speech, its peculiarities
According to the view held by some grammarians, words should be divided into two categories on the following principle: some words denote things, actions, and other extra linguistic phenomena, whereas other words denote relations and connections between the notional words, and thus have no direct bearing on anything extra linguistic. Authors holding this view define prepositions as words denoting relations between words, and conjunctions as words connecting words or sentences. Actually, the so-called formal words also express something extra linguistic, prepositions express relations between things(the letter is on the table and The letter is in the table: two different relations between the two objects, the letter and the table, are denoting by the prepositions.)
In similar way, conjunctions denote connections between extra linguistic things and phenomena. Thus, in the sentence The match was postponed because it was raining the conjunctions because denotes the causal connection between two processes, which of course exist whether we choose to express it by words or not. In the sentence It was raining but the match took place all the same the conjunction but expresses a contradiction between two phenomena. The rain and the match exist in reality whether we mention it or not. It follows that the prepositions on and in, the conjunctions because and but express some relations and connections existing independently of language, and thus have a close a connection with the extra linguistic world as any noun or verb
48) general information of complex sentence
Ответ № 24
49) syntactic bond and its types, illustrate with examples
A syntactic relations between the component of the phrase is the syntactic bond. There are two theories concerning the types of syntactic bond. Professor Ilyish distinguish two main syntactical relations between component of a phrase: agreement and government
Ответ №18, 19
50) secondary members of the sentence
Ответ № 16
51. the object
It is well known that there are several types of objects and some kind of classification has to be found for them. Objects differ from one another , on the one hand , by their morphological composition , that is , by the parts of speech or phrases which perform the function of object , and on the other hand , in some cases objects modifying a part of the sentence ethxpressed by a verb form(and that is most usually the predicate)differ by the type of their relation to the action expressed by the verb ( it is to this difference that the terms “direct object” and “indirect object” are due)
Since the latter distinction applies only to a certain morphological type of objects , it will be convenient to take first the classification according to morphological differences.
From the point of view we must draw a distinction between non-prepositional and prepositional objects. Both non-prepositional and prepositional objects may sometimes be hard to distinguish from adverbial modifiers.
The classification of objects into direct and indirect ones applies only to objects expressed by nouns or pronouns (and occasionally substantivized adjectives) it has no reference whatever to objects expressed by an infinitive , a gerund or phrase. With objects of these kinds the question whether they are direct or indirect would be meaningless. But even with objects expressed by nouns or pronouns the distinction is far from being always clear.
52. Adverbial modifier and its function.
The position of adverbial modifiers in the sentence is known to be comparatively more free than that of other parts. However , there is some difference here between types of modifiers . those which are most closely linked with the part of the sentence they modify are the ones that denote the frequency or the property of an action. They come between the subject and the predicate , or even inside the predicate if it consists of two words – an auxiliary and a notional verb , or two elements of a compound predicate.
We cannot however say either that adverbial modifiers of these types cannot stand elsewhere in the sentence , or that adverbial modifiers of frequency well appear at the beginning of the sentence. Occasionally on the other hand an adverbial modifier of another type appears between subject and predicate: Catherine , for a few moments , was motionless with horror .
The more usual position of the adverbial modifiers of time and place is outside the group “ subject+predicate+object”, that is either before or after it. an adverbial modifier also comes in between two components of the predicate in the following sentence: he was acting not happily , not with an easy mind, but impelled to remove some of the weight that had for months been pressing him down.
The usual statement about adverbial modifiers of time always coming either at the beginning or at the end of a sentence , and outside the subject predicate group anyway, is much too strict and is not borne out by actual usage. Here are some examples of adverbial modifiers of time coming either between the subject and the predicate , or within the predicate, if it consists of more than one word:
Bessie , during that twenty-four hours , had spent a night with Alice and a day with Muriel.
53.Text and its types.
54. Comment on the structural type.
Types of Sentences According to Structure
-
Simple
-
Composite
The relations between the two classifications should now be considered.
It
is plain that a simple sentence can be either declarative, or
interrogative,
or imperative. But things are somewhat more complicated
with reference to composite sentences. If both (or all) clauses
making up a composite sentence are declarative, the composite
sentence as a whole is of course declarative too. And so it is
bound to be in every case when both (or all) clauses making a
composite
sentence belong to the same type of communication (that is
the case in an overwhelming majority of examples). Sometimes,
however,
composite sentences are found which consist of clauses
belonging
to different types of communication. Here it will sometimes
he impossible to say to what type of communication the composite
sentence as a whole belongs. We will take up this question
when we come to the composite sentence.
Some other questions connected with the mutual relation of the two classifications will be considered as we proceed.
55. Comment on the type of the predicate.
The predicate is one of the two main parts of the sentence:1-it denotes action or property of the thing expressed by subject 2-it is not dependent on any other part of the sentence 3- ways of expressing the predicate are varied and their structure will better be considered under the heading of types of predicate.
Predicate may be classified in two ways , one of which is based on their structure (simple and compound)and the other on their morphological characteristics(verbal and nominal)
If we take the structural classification as the basic one we obtain the following types:
Simple predicate-1)verbal 2)nominal
Compound predicate:-1)verbal 2)nominal
If we were take the morphological classification as the basic one the result would be the following:
Verbal predicate:-1)simple 2)compound
Nominal predicate 1)simple 2)compound
56. Comment on the type of the subject.
The subject is one of the two main parts of the sentence 1)It denotes the thing whose action or characteristic is expressed by the predicate, 2)It is not dependent on any other part of the sentence , 3) It may be expressed by different parts of speech, the most frequent ones being: a noun in common case , a demonstrative pronoun occasionally, a personal pronoun in the nominative case, a substantivized adjective , a numeral, an infinitive, and a gerund. It may also be expressed by a phrase.
57. Comment on the type of adverbial modifier.
There are several ways of classifying adverbial modifiers:
1)according to their meaning-is not in itself a grammatical classification. For instance , the difference between an adverbial modifier of place and one of time is basically semantic and depends on the lexical meaning of the words functioning as adverbial modifier.this type of classification a list of all possible meanings they can have , is impossible to achieve , and it would serve no useful purpose. A certain number of meanings can be found quite easily, such as place , time , condition , manner of an action, degree of a property , etc.
2) according to their morphological peculiarities-i.e. according to the parts of speech and to phrase patterns , is essential: it has also something to do with word order , and stands in a certain relation to the classification according to meaning.
3)according to the type of their head word-it is connected with the classification according to meaning; for instance an adverbial modifier can modify a part of the sentence expressed by a verb only if the type of meaning of the word acting as modifier is compatible with the meaning of a verb, etc.
58. Main peculiarities of the phrase.
Phrase is every combination of two or more words which is a grammatical unit but is not an analytical form of some word. The constituent elements of phrase may belong to any part of speech . For instance ,they may both be nouns , or one of them may be an adjective and the other a noun , or one may be a preposition and the other a noun , or there may be three of them , one being a preposition , the other a noun , and the third a preposition. The difference a phrase and a sentence is a fundamental one. A phrase is a means of naming some phenomena or process, just as a word is. Each component of a phrase can undergo grammatical changes in in accordance with grammatical categories represented in it, without destroying the identity of the phrase. it must be borne in mind that a phrase as such has no intonation, just as a word has none. it is to the phrase level that the syntactical notions of agreement and government apply. In studying phrases from a grammatical viewpoint we will divide them according to their function in the sentence into 1)those which perform the function of one or more parts of the sentence for example predicate and object, or predicate ands adverbial modifier etc. 2)those which do not perform any such function but whose function is equivalent to that of a preposition, or conjunction, and which are to all intens and purposes equivalents of those parts of speech.
Types:
“noun+noun” is most usual type of phrase in modern English.(1-common 2_genetive case)
“noun in the common case+noun” may be used to denote one idea as modified by another , in the widest sense.
“noun in the genitive case+noun” has a more restricted meaning and use
“adjective+noun”is used to express all possible kinds of things with their properties.
“verb+noun” may correspond to two different types of relation between an action and a thing.
59 Dwell on the problem of the definition of the phrase.
We will term "phrase" every combination of two or more words which is a grammatical unit but is not an analytical form of some word (as, for instance, the perfect forms of verbs). The constituent elements of a phrase may belong to any part of speech. For instance, they may both be nouns, or one of them may be an adjective and the other a noun, or again one of them may be a verb and the other a noun, or one may be a preposition and the other a noun; or there may be three of them, one being a preposition, the other a noun, and the third a preposition, etc.
We thus adopt the widest possible definition of a phrase and we do not limit this notion by stipulating that a phrase must contain at least two notional words, as is done in a number of linguistic treatises. 1 The inconvenience of restricting the notion of phrase to those groups which contain at least two notional words is that, for example, the group "preposition + noun" remains outside the classification and is therefore neglected in grammatical theory.
The difference between a phrase and a sentence is a fundamental one. A phrase is a means of naming some phenomena or processes, just as a word is. Each component of a phrase can undergo grammatical changes in accordance with grammatical categories represented in it, without destroying the identity of the phrase. For instance, in the phrase write letters the first component can change according to the verbal categories of tense, mood, etc., and the second component according to the category of number. Thus, writes a letter, has written a letter, would have written letters, etc., are grammatical modifications of one phrase.
With a sentence, things are entirely different. A sentence is a unit with every word having its definite form. A change in the form of one or more words would produce a new sentence.
60. Dwell on the problem of the definition of the sentence.
The notion of sentence has not so far received a satisfactory definition which would enable us by upplying it in every particular case to find out whether a certain linguistic unit was a sentence or not.1)The sentence is immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a define syntactic –pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose. 2) The sentence is a communication unit made up o Dwell on the problem of the definition of the phrase.
f words in-conformity with their combinability and structurally united by intonation and predicativity. There is a considerable divergence of opinion among grammarians concerning the analysis of “one member” and “imperative” sentence. Some scholars do not treat them as sentences , others do treat them as a sentences, as unlike the word such sentences do not exist in the system of language as a ready –made unit , they are created by speakers in the course of communication , they are intonationally delimited and are characterized by predication . this discrepancy brings to the necessity to distinguish a sentence , which is not always structurally correct but is still a communicative unit of speech , that is when a sentence used in speech then it becomes an utterance.
61. Rate up the ways of forming words, illustrate with examples.
A word-form is any form of the grammatical paradigm of the word. Girl, girls, girl’s, girls'; to write, writes, wrote, is writing, has been written, will have been writing, etc.; pale, paler; brilliant, more brilliant, most brilliant are all word-forms.
As seen from the above a word-form may contain either one component or more than one. One-component word-forms are various synthetic forms of the word, while multi-component word-forms are analytical forms of the word which are composed of оne or more auxiliary components and one notional component. The auxiliary components may be verbs (be, have, do, shall, will), adverbs (more, most), particles (to).
Note:In grammar we usually deal with word-forms, not words, though it is customary to make use of the term “word” in the sense of “word-form” as well. So in the following chapters both these terms will be used in the sense of “word-form”, “word-form” being more exact, “word” having the advantage of being shorter.
62. Main notions of Syntax.
Syntax is the part of grammar which deals with sentences and combinability of words. The core of syntax is the study of the sentence. Syntax embraces on the one hand the structure of the sentence, that is, its components, their structure and the relations between these components, and on the other hand structural and communicative types of sentences.
The syntactic language level can be described with the help of special linguistic terms and noyions:syntactic unit , syntactic form, syntactic meaning , syntactic function, syntactic position, and syntactic relation. Syntactic unit is always a combination that has at least two constituents. The basic syntactic units are a word-group , a clause, a sentence , and a text. Their main features are :a)they are hierarchical units-the units of a lower level serve the building material for the units of a higher level.b) as all language units are of two fold nature:content side(syntactic meaning) and expression side(syntactic form)
Syntactic meaning is the way in which separate word meanings are combined to produce meaningful word –groups and sentensces. Syntactic function is the function of a unit on the basis of which it is included to a larger unit.
63. Speak about the classification of the phrase according to the structure and illustrate with the examples.
A phrase is a group of two or more notional words functioning as a whole. Besides notional words a phrase may contain one or more formal words. Compare: to see her - to look at her.
Depending
on the relation between its components, phrases may be divided into
two kinds: phrases which are divisible both syntactically and
semantically, and phrases which are indivisible either syntactically
or semantically, or both. The
type "noun + noun" is a most usual type of phrase in Modern
English. It must be divided into two subtypes, depending on the form
of the first component, which may be in the common or in
the genitive case. The
type "noun in the common case +
noun"
may be used to denote
one idea as modified by another, in the widest sense. We f
ind
here a most varied choice of semantic spheres, such as speech
sound,
silver watch, army unit, which
of course deserve detailed study
from the lexicological viewpoint. We may only note that the first
component may be a proper name as well, as in the phrases a
Beethoven symphony or
London
Bridge.
The type "noun in the genitive case + noun" has a more restricted meaning and use, which we need not go into here, as we have discussed the meaning of the form in -'s at some length in Chapter III.
Another very common type is "adjective + noun", which is used to express all possible kinds of things with their properties.
The type "verb + noun" may correspond to two different types of relation between an action and a thing. In the vast majority of cases the noun denotes an object of the action expressed by the verb, but in a certain number of phrases it denotes a measure, rather than the object, of the action. This may be seen in such phrases as, walk a mile, sleep an hour, wait a minute, etc. It is only the meaning of the verb and that of the noun which enable the hearer or reader to understand the relation correctly. The meaning of the verb divides, for instance, the phrase wait an hour from the phrase appoint an hour, and shows the relations in the two phrases to be basically different.
In a similar way other types of phrases should be set down and analysed. Among them will be the types, "verb + adverb", "adverb + adjective", "adverb + adverb", "noun + preposition + noun", "adjective + preposition + noun", "verb + preposition + noun", etc.
64. Speak about the classification of the phrase according to the head component and supply with examples.
Here the following kinds of phrases may be distinguished: nominal, verbal, adjectival, adverbial and statival phrases. In verbal phrases the headword is a verbal which has one or more word-forms dependent on it. The latter are mostly nouns, noun-pronouns, or adverbs, each of which may have its own dependent words: to know him, to see her again, going home in the evening, speaking a foreign language. In all these phrases syntactical relations between the headwords and dependent words are either objective (him, her, a language) or adverbial (again, home, in the evening). Phrases of this kind function according to the nature of their headwords, that is, in the same way as their headwords do when used separately. . In adjective phrases the headword is an adjective which has some words dependent on it. They are usually adverbs or nouns with a preposition, or an infinitive. These may have dependent words of their own: quite true, too big, wonderfully clever, kind enough, absent from classes, true to his word, unable to say a word, etc. Their relation to the headword is either adverbial (where the dependent word is an adverb) or objective (where the dependent word is a noun with a preposition or an infinitive). Such phrases perform the same functions as adjectives used alone.1. In nominal phrases the headword is a noun, a noun-pronoun, or a numeral modified by one or more word-forms. The latter are mostly adjectives, nouns, or pronouns with prepositions, although they may be participles or infinitives. They may have dependent words of their own: a new way, a very good friend, a recently built house, the years to come, etc.; something curious, anything so unexpected, everybody staying here, all of them, nothing to say; tire first of May, the second to enter, etc. Their relation to the headword is attributive. Phrases of this kind function as nouns treated separately. In adverbial phrases the headword is an adverb modified by some other adverb or (very seldom) by a noun/pronoun with a preposition: very happily, rather well, heartily enough, fortunately for the boy, etc. Their relation to the headword is either adverbial (in this case the modifying word is an adverb) or objective (in this case it is a noun with a preposition). Such phrases function like separate adverbs. Instatival phrases where the headword is a stative modified either by a noun with a preposition, or by an adverb, or by an infinitive, each of which may have dependent words of its own: aware of the danger, afraid of cold water, so deeply asleep, quite alone, afraid to go home, ashamed to tell her about it, etc. Their relation to the headword is either adverbial (the dependent word is an adverb) or objective (in this case it is a noun with a preposition or an infinitive). Such phrases function as the corresponding statives do when used separately.