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Acceptability is judged in terms of the degree to which observations and experimentations can be reproduced.
The era of modern science is generally considered to have begun with the Renaissance, but the rudiments of the scientific approach to knowledge can be observed throughout human history.
Definitions of scientific method use such concepts as objectivity of approach to and acceptability of the results of scientific study.
Acceptability is judged in terms of the degree to which observations and experimentations can be reproduced.
Scientific method also involves the interplay of inductive reasoning (reasoning from specific observations and experiments to more general hypotheses and theories) and deductive reasoning (reasoning from theories to account for specific experimental results. By such reasoning processes, science attempts to develop the broad laws—such as Isaac Newton's law of gravitation - that become part of our understanding of the natural world.
No single path to discovery exists in science, and no one clear-cut description can be given that accounts for all the ways in which scientific truth is pursued.
This was a false conclusion, and hence, logically, the first hypothesis was false.
From this he was able to infer that the distance traversed by a falling object is proportional to the square of the time elapsed, and this hypothesis he was able to verify experimentally by rolling balls down an inclined plane.
The ultimate test of the validity of a scientific hypothesis is its consistency with the totality of other aspects of the scientific framework.
Scientists, like other human beings, may individually be swayed by some prevailing worldview to look for certain experimental results rather than others, or to “intuit” some broad theory that they then seek to prove.
The scientific community as a whole, however, judges the work of its members by the objectivity and rigor with which that work has been conducted; in this way the scientific method prevails.
Exercise 5
Кратко передайте содержание каждого абзаца.
The scientific method is the set of principles that guide scientific research and experimentation. It focuses on the how of understanding the natural world, and its roots can be traced back throughout human history, although it is commonly associated with the Renaissance.
Scientific method is characterized by objectivity, which involves observing things as they are without bias, and acceptability, which refers to the reproducibility of observations and experiments. It combines inductive reasoning (from specific observations to general hypotheses) and deductive reasoning (from theories to explain specific results) to develop broad laws that explain the natural world.
Science encompasses various disciplines with different subject matters and approaches to studying them. There is no single path to scientific discovery, and different philosophers, such as Francis Bacon and René Descartes, proposed different methods like inductive and deductive reasoning.
Galileo's approach to studying falling bodies exemplifies a common method used by physical scientists. He formulated a hypothesis, deduced its implications, tested it experimentally, and adjusted his hypothesis based on the results. Galileo's work led to the understanding that the speed and distance of falling objects are related.
A conclusion derived from a hypothesis and supported by observations does not prove the hypothesis as true but makes it more plausible. The validity of a scientific hypothesis is ultimately determined by its consistency with other aspects of scientific knowledge and the overall scientific framework, which is based on the concept of causality.
Exercise 6
Выделите пять основных идей текста.
The scientific method is a set of principles that guide scientific research and experimentation, focusing on the rigorous and objective understanding of the natural world.
Scientific method involves both inductive reasoning (from specific observations to general hypotheses) and deductive reasoning (from theories to explain specific results), leading to the development of broad laws.
Science encompasses various disciplines with different subject matters and approaches to studying them, and there is no single prescribed method for scientific discovery.
Galileo's study of falling bodies exemplifies a common scientific method: formulating hypotheses, deducing implications, conducting experiments, and adjusting hypotheses based on results.
The validity of a scientific hypothesis is determined by its consistency with other aspects of scientific knowledge and the overall scientific framework, and scientific conclusions are evaluated by the scientific community based on objectivity and rigor.
Exercise 7
Составьте предложения, используя данные выражения:
Knowledge of nature; pure science; applied science; scientific investigation; deductive reasoning; inductive reasoning; scientific progress; social science; mainstream of science; electricity is part of physics; scientific theories; specialized fields of research; branch of science.
Pure science is the process of discovering scientific truths, rather than conducting applied scientific research.
The applied sciences embrace knowledge, in research and embrace a direct, broad orientation to practice; it is a science, the development of new technologies, namely: an algorithm of action to obtain the desired product.
Scientific investigation is the process of studying, experimenting, conceptualizing and testing theory related to obtaining scientific knowledge.
Deductive reasoning is a method of thinking that is limited to the transition to the general part.
Inductive reasoning is a type of generalization associated with the anticipation of the results of detection and experiments based on experience data.
Scientific progress is a continuous process of introducing new techniques and technologies, organization and labor based on the achievements and production of scientific knowledge.
Social science is a complex of scientific disciplines that study both society as a whole, its structure, dynamics, development, history, and individual subsystems.
Electricity is a part of physics a branch of physics that masters knowledge about static electricity, electric currents and magnetic phenomena.
Scientific theory is understood as the most developed form of organization of scientific knowledge, which provides knowledge about the totality and essential combinations of the studied field of observations.
Science is divided into 4 branches: mechanical, practical, theoretical. logical.
Exercise 8
Переведите на русский язык следующие предложения:
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The Pythagorean scholars distinguished only four sciences: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.
The Pythagorean scholars distinguished only four sciences: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy
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By the time of Aristotle mechanics, optics, physics, meteorology, zoology, and botany were also recognized.
Ко времени Аристотеля были признаны также механика, оптика, физика, метеорология, зоология и ботаника.
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Chemistry remained outside the mainstream of science until the time of Robert Boyle in the 17th century.
Химия оставалась вне основного направления науки до времен Роберта Бойля в 17 веке.
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The pure natural sciences are generally divided into two classes: the physical sciences and the biological, or life, sciences.
Чистые естественные науки обычно делятся на два класса: физические науки и биологические, или науки о жизни.
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The principal branches among the physical sciences are physics, astronomy, chemistry, and geology.
Основными разделами физических наук являются физика, астрономия, химия и геология.
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Interrelationships between sciences are considered responsible for much of the progress today in several specialized fields of research, such as molecular biology and genetics.
Взаимосвязь между науками считается сегодня ответственной за большой прогресс в нескольких специализированных областях исследований, таких как молекулярная биология и генетика.
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The applied sciences include such fields as aeronautics, electronics, engineering, and metallurgy.
К прикладным наукам относятся такие области, как аэронавтика, электроника, машиностроение и металлургия.
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Advances in science are generally the result of research by teams of specialists representing different sciences, both pure and applied.
Достижения науки, как правило, являются результатом исследований коллективов специалистов, представляющих разные науки, как чистые, так и прикладные.
Exercise 9
Переведите на английский язык:
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Большинство лабораторий института проводят научные исследования и эксперименты в области электротехники и теплотехники.
Most of the Institute's laboratories conduct scientific research and experiments in the field of electrical engineering and heat engineering
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Ученые всего мира в своих работах используют научные методы исследования.
Scientists all over the world use scientific methods of research in their work.
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Ученые со времен Г. Галилея в своих исследованиях применяли научный подход к предмету исследования.
Scientists since the time of G. Galileo in their research have applied a scientific approach to the subject of study.
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Началом эры современной науки считается период эпохи Возрождения.
The beginning of the era of modern science is considered to be the Renaissance period.
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Одним из основных элементов научного исследования является эксперимент.
One of the main elements of scientific research is the experiment.
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Объективность подхода в исследовании играет важнейшую роль в обеспечении научного прогресса.
The objectivity of the approach in the study plays a crucial role in ensuring scientific progress.
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Объективность научного подхода указывает на то, что исследователь не фальсифицирует результаты исследования в угоду каким-либо предвзятым суждениям
The objectivity of the scientific approach indicates that the researcher does not falsify the results of the study in favor of any preconceived notions.
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Одним из основных направлений науки является развитие фундаментальных законов, которые в дальнейшем становятся частью нашего понимания естественного мира.
One of the main areas of science is the development of fundamental laws that later become part of our understanding of the natural world.
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Взаимодействие индуктивного и дедуктивного методов в научном исследовании является неотъемлемой частью научного подхода к изучению проблемы.
The interaction of inductive and deductive methods in scientific research is an integral part of the scientific approach to the study of the problem.
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Наука является одной из важнейших составляющих прогресса человечества.
Science is one of the most important components of the progress of humanity.
Text B
Automation
Automation is a system of manufacture designed to extend the capacity of machines to perform certain tasks formerly done by humans, and to control sequences of operations without human intervention. The term automation has also been used to describe nonmanufacturing systems in which programmed or automatic devices can operate independently or nearly independently of human control. In the fields of communications, aviation, and astronautics, for example, such devices as automatic telephone switching equipment, automatic pilots, and automated guidance and control systems are used to perform various operations much faster or better than could be accomplished by humans.
Elements of Automation
Automated manufacture arose out of the intimate relationship of such economic forces and technical innovations as the division of labor, power transfer and the mechanization of the factory, and the development of transfer machines and feedback systems as explained below. he division of labor (that is, the reduction of a manufacturing or service process into its smallest independent steps) developed in the latter half of the 18th century and was first discussed by the British economist Adam Smith in his book An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). In manufacturing, the division of labor results in increased production and a reduction in the level of skills required of workers. Mechanization was the next step necessary in the development of automation. The simplification of work made possible by the division of labor also made it possible to design and build machines that duplicated the motions of the worker. As the technology of power transfer evolved, these specialized machines were motorized and their production efficiency was improved. The development of power technology also gave rise to the factory system of production, because all workers and machines had to be located near the power source. The transfer machine is a device used to move a work piece from one specialized machine tool to another, in such a manner as to properly position the work piece for the next machining operation. Industrial robots, originally designed only to perform simple tasks in environments dangerous to human workers, are now extremely dexterous and are being used to transfer, manipulate, and index (that is, to position) both light and heavy workpieces, thus performing all the functions of a transfer machine. In actual practice, a number of separate machines are integrated into what may be thought of as one large machine. In the 1920s the auto industry combined these concepts into an integrated system of production. The goal of this assembly-line system was to make automobiles available to people who previously could not afford them. This method of production was adopted by most automobile manufacturers and rapidly became known as Detroit automation. Despite more recent advances, it is this system of production that most people think of as automation.
Автоматизация - это производственная система, предназначенная для расширения возможностей машин выполнять определенные задачи, ранее выполнявшиеся людьми, и для управления последовательностью операций без вмешательства человека. Термин "автоматизация" также использовался для описания непроизводственных систем, в которых запрограммированные или автоматические устройства могут работать независимо или почти независимо от управления человека. Например, в области связи, авиации и космонавтики такие устройства, как оборудование автоматической телефонной коммутации, автопилоты и автоматизированные системы наведения и контроля, используются для выполнения различных операций гораздо быстрее или лучше, чем это мог бы сделать человек.