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meant to suggest the character's morals and motives. The plot may develop chronologically or prospectively, when the events are organized consequently. Or there may be retrospection when the events go backwards. Especially in the Modernism prose of the 20th century we may also notify the chaotic organization of events, the main aim of which is to represent the chaos of existence.

Also there may be observed jumps back and forth in time, which are called flashforwards – anticipation of future events, and flashbacks – returning to the past events. Both interfere in the text coherence but are very strong devices in creating the atmosphere. Flashforwards are usually short and characterized by changing grammatical tenses (Past to Future) and by the use of different time markers such as "it will not be rather long", "much later", etc. Flashbacks may be rather long (even to some chapters) and are marked by grammatical tense (the Past Perfect), adverbs "then, there", lexical groups concerning "memory, remembrances, etc."

2. Integrity/ Integration

Integration is a unification of all parts of a text for the sake of achieving its gestalt (wholeness). It is the reverse side of discreteness

The text integrity is revealed in the ability of the text to function as a united whole. This category has two aspects structural and semantic, which is reflected in two planes/dimensions of the text. The two interrelated factors of integration are:

1)its cohesion,

2)its coherence.

The cohesion is the unity on the basis of different formal features - means of correlation between parts constituting the text. Cohesion includes various linking devices which organize the flow of the text and contribute to its integrity.

The coherence of the text is a semantic notion and presupposes first of all the semantic unity of the text, the development of its theme. It is ensured by the following factors:

·the communicative intention of the author,

·the theme of the text,

·its genre,

·the image of the author,

·its EM and SD,

·different means of foregrounding.

· The communicative intention of the writer is the correspondence

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of the text to the aims of the author and the conditions of communication. It is realised in the modality and pragmatic aim of the text.

Modality is the author's attitude towards the events, characters, etc. There are no stylistically neutral literary texts, as the latter is the result of the author's subjective perception of reality, it doesn't just simply reflect the world, but the world seen through the eves of the writer

Modality is revealed not only in the use of certain modal and evaluative words and figures of speech, but in the writer's choice of characteristics, objects of narration.

The pragmatic aim is the author's intention (the message of the text), his aim to influence his readers It is the inducement/motivation of the reader for a reciprocal reaction / response on his part. The pragmatic unity of the text is aimed at solving certain communicative tasks. In the literary texts it is the task of the aesthetic impact on the reader.

·The thematic unity of the text is the common concept. The main idea may not be formulated openly, but it is always present in the form of a certain motivation.

·The compositional-genre unity of the text presupposes its reference to a certain functional style or genre.

·The uniting function of the image of the author is a characteristic feature of literary texts. It means that all separate constituent parts of the text are permeated by a single world outlook, which is reflected in the writer's attitude to the characters, the kind of conflicts and problems raised in the text.

·The uniting role of EM and SD in the development of the plot of the text, personages' characterisation, the revealing of the key theme of the text (e.g. the distant repetition – it turns the reader's attention to the key subject of the text, the extended metaphor, simile).

·Foregrounding refers to different means of the formal organisation of the text, which focuses the reader's attention on certain elements of communication and which establishes semantically relevant relations between the elements of one or several levels.

There are several types of foregrounding convergence of EM and SD and strong positions: of the epigraph, the title, the opening and the closing parts of the text, the proper name, the artistic detail.

3.Information, conceptuality, implicitness

Though the categories mentioned above are of great significance, they are basically directed to the expression of the main idea of the text for the sake of which the latter is created. A literary text does not exist without its idea. The formulated idea of the literary work is its concept (social, moral,

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aesthetical idea). The whole process of text interpretation boils down to the search for the means of expressing the concept.

The existence of the concept explains the stratification of the text information into several layers.

The first layer deals with factual, explicit information. The contracting of content-factual information boils down to the formulation of the theme/plot of the text (answering the question "What is happening?"). Here the plot development is concentrated. However, restricting the text interpretation only to this kind of information will impoverish and misrepresent it.

The second layer represents conceptual information, and formulates the idea of the text (answering the question "What for are these events happening?"). It is not easily discernible. It may not lie on the surface of the verbal exposition. This kind of information can only be grasped after a minute examination of the constituents of the text. It may have different interpretations. It is mainly found in the belles-lettres style.

The third informational layer is implicit, sub-textual information; it is the undercurrent of the text and adds significance and contributes to the text profundity.

Linear (explicit) and sub-textual (implicit) informational streams are directed to the formation of conceptual information. Thus the idea of the literary work is realised through the author's evaluation, which can be directly announced by the writer (the explicit way) or may exist in the text without being openly expressed in it (the implicit way). Actually they're no purely explicit or implicit literary works. Each text contains elements of these means exposition. Implicit information is more indispensable for forming the concept of the text than explicit one.

Sub-textual information includes into factual information its signposts, which are of great importance for creating the concept of the text. The adequate comprehension of sub-textual information depends on:

·the individual thesaurus of the reader and

·his/her concentration on the reading matter.

That's why in the implicit manner of writing the author to a great degree depends on the reader.

Thus, sub-textual information is materially fixed in the text; however the means of its fixation are very specific and require a very subtle perception and analysis.

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Lecture 10: Text Interpretation and the Elements

of the Text Analysis

10.1. Text Interpretation.

10.2 The Elements of the Text Analysis.

10.1. Text Interpretation

A literary text is rather complicated. It comprises the author's thoughts and feelings, and the main task of its interpretation is to understand the writer's idea, to decipher the implication.

Text interpretation is an open-ended reading, potentially unlimited elucidation of a text. Different readers stress different points in a literary text offering his/her interpretation. Similarity or difference in ideological, aesthetic, psychological, emotional properties/qualities of the author and the reader leads to the possibility of different interpretation of one and the same literary work.

Hence the author's perception of the reality, his emotions and associations might appear acceptable/ unacceptable; clear/ vague; true/ false; fair/ unfair; deep/ shallow for different recipients.

The principle the author-reader communication is described by V. Kukharenko as the principle of a funnel. The objective world realised, processed and transformed by the author takes shape of a particular literary text, which serves a starting point for the reader's recreation of the world's versatility encoded in the text.

The literary text remains unchangeable as well as the signals in the text which evoke such strikingly different emotions and associations. As our perception is selective, every reader assimilates only part of these signals.

That is why we may conclude that the Text Interpretation is a very creative and subjective matter. On the other hand, we can't say that reader has unrestricted freedom in interpretation. Though sometimes different in accentuation and profundity of understanding, all interpretations are based same unit – the text.

So the Text Interpretation is both the process of the text apprehension and the result of the process expressed in the skill of reporting your ideas about the text, using the proper meta-language.

By and large, a stylistic interpretation of the text is supposed to consist of two major stages:

1 . Analysis of the text.

2.Synthesis of the main idea/ideas of the text.

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10.2. The elements of the text analysis

·The title

The title plays an important role in the text analysis. Its main pragmatic aim is to draw the attention of the reader, to establish the contact and to direct the reader's expectations and forecasts. A very important function of the title is the actualisation of the text concept. The title embodies almost all the text categories.

ØThe category of discreteness is realized by intervening titles (within one text). This makes the text easier to read, distinguishes sub themes, underlines the importance of composition and partitioning.

ØThe category of integrity can be traced in the title words repetition in the text. The title words penetrate the text always reminding the reader of the main issue.

ØThe category of modality. The title facilitates the reader in predicting the text atmosphere, prepares and "tunes" him for certain feelings and emotions which might arise while reading. The category of modality is realized in the title through:

§emotional and estimation words, explicitly

e.g. "Vile Bodies" by Ivline Wough, D. Bartelne

"Unspeakable Practices - Unnatural Acts"

§retrospective apprehension of the estimation e.g. "The

Quite American" Gr. Green

ØThe title plays an important role in the concept realization as it reflects the text main idea. The author chooses the most appropriate title and some times it takes time to find the very one.

The title has several functions such as:

ØThe informative function, it names the text, defines its theme, refers to the genre.

ØThe prospective function plays the crucial role in forming the reader's intention whether to read or not. Usually rather short, the title possesses tremendous energy containing all the ideas of the text. (e.g. A. Christie's novels).

ØThe retrospective function. However, it is very difficult to always predict the story content by the title, as sometimes it may be metaphorical, allusive or comparative.

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There may be the effect of "the deceived expectations". e.g. "The Young Lions" - not the story about the youth of the king of beasts. This feature of the title may play a trick on an inexperienced translator, who starts translating the title not knowing the content.

The title is usually two-folded. First, it is connected with the definite situation, idea expressed in the text, thus giving it concrete definition. Second, it may express generalized metaphorical idea (e.g. "Вишнёвый сад"). So, the idea of the title may be transformed and will be understood only in the connection with the already read and apprehended text. So we may speak about the retrospective function of the title.

·The characters and the conflict

Most writers of the story attempt to create characters who strike the

reader, not as stereotypes, but as unique individuals. Characters are called round if they are complex and develop or change in the course of the story. Flat characters are usually one-sided, constructed round a single trait. If two characters have distinctly opposing features, one serves as a foil to the other, and the contrast between them becomes more apparent. The description of the different aspects (physical, moral, social) of a character is known as characterization. When the author describes the character himself or makes another do it, it is direct characterization. When the author shows the character in action and lets the reader judge for himself the author uses the indirect method of characterization. Indirectly the characters may also be depicted through their speech.

Round and flat characters have different functions in the conflict of the story. The conflict may be external, i.e. between human beings or between man and the environment (individual against nature, individual against the established order/values in the society). The internal conflict takes place in the mind, here the character is torn between opposing features of his personality. The two parties in the conflict are called the protagonist and his or her antagonist.

·The setting

The particular time and physical location of the story form the setting. Such details as time of the year, certain parts of the landscape, the weather, colours, sounds or other seemingly uninteresting details may be of great importance. The setting can have various functions in a given story:

Øit can provide a realistic background,

Øit can evoke the necessary atmosphere,

Øit can help describe the characters indirectly.

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·The tone, the theme and the message

The author's choice of characters, events, situations, details and his

choice of words is by no means accidental. Whatever leads us to enter the author's attitude to his subject matter is called tone. Like the tone of voice, the tone of the story may communicate amusement, anger, affection, sorrow, contempt. The images created by the author may lend the story a lyrical, melancholy, humorous effect. They may be poetic, fresh, trite, hackneyed, stale, thus contributing to creating a peculiar atmosphere of the story.

Tone refers to the emotional feeling, mood, or quality of a piece of writing. In technical and scientific prose the author's tone is usually objective and impartial as befits the purpose of conveying information, not arousing emotions.

Newspaper articles generally are also written in an objective manner, since their purpose is to convey factual information, not to provide subjective views.

But in all other kinds of writing, the writer's tone can reflect any of the emotional stances one can think of. The writer may be sympathetic, bitter, hostile, angry, serious, self-observing, humorous, caustic, ironic, earnest, witty, etc.

The theme of the story is like unifying general idea about life that the story reveals. Theme is something that lies in foundation. It is the general concept of the text. The author rarely gives a direct statement of the theme in the story. It is up to the reader to collect and combine all his observations and finally to try to formulate the idea illustrated by the story. The most important generalization the author expresses is sometimes referred to as the message. The message is an underlying thread invisibly unifying all the separated episodes and loosely connected elements of the narrative. The message depends on the writer's outlook, and the reader may either share it or not.

·Artistic detail

We regard the detail as "something small, insignificant manifesting

something big and important". It is a laconic and expressive representation of a complicated idea, fact or phenomenon. The details which are selected by the author to represent the whole, to recreate the complete picture are called poetic /artistic details.

The popularity of the artistic detail among writers is conditioned by its potential force able to intensify the reader's perception, to make his associative imagination fly. The detail accentuates pragmatic and modal characteristics of the text. The detail is a significant signal of imagery.

The detail usually represents an insignificant exterior feature of a complicated object, and is a material embodiment of facts and processes. The detail can manifest people's emotions, and as the latter are various and individ-

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ual, different authors create particularly individual details. Even the same feelings may be shown in absolutely dissimilar ways.

For example, in strong grief Gatsby (Fitzgerald) is standing under rainfall, Bossini (Golsworthy) is wandering in fog, Lieutenant Henry (E. Hemingway) sits at the table in a cafe.

In deciphering the detail there is no identity in the profundity of readers' perception, as much depends on their thesaurus, attention, mood and other personal qualities.

According to the function it carries the detail may be authentic, descriptive, specifying, characterological and implicating.

ØAuthentic details bring the reader to believe in real existence of the described things and events and their authenticity - names of countries, towns, streets, hotels, etc.

ØThe descriptive detail is aimed to create the visual image of an object. It is generally used in portraying people and nature. With the help of the depicting detail the landscape or person's appearance attains more individual and particular image. The choice of the detail manifests the author's viewpoint, represents such categories as modality, pragmatics and system.

e.g. The room, not much used now, was still vaguely haunted for them both by a presence with which they associated tenderness, large drooping white moustaches, the scent of cigar smoke and laughter. (J. Galsworthy "In Chancery")

ØThe, main function of the specifying detail is to produce

true impression by fixing insignificant details. As a rule, it is used in dialogues and 1st person narration. Such kind of the detail is essential in creating a character's image. Not mentioning a person directly, the specifying detail contributes to anthropocentric idea of the text.

ØCharacterological details reveal the personage's psychological qualities, individual traits and habits. They underline the essential features (e.g. Sh. Holmes' pipe). The details are there for a purpose: to reveal the characters and their motivations, and to provide us with clues as to what is underneath the surface.

e.g. In F.O 'Connor 's story "Good Country People ", the main character, whose name is Joy (ironically, given her sullen demeanour), is gradually revealed to us in a se-

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ries of characterological details. One such detail comes early in the story when we learn that Joy has legally changed her name to Hulga, which sounds to her mother (and undoubtedly to the reader, too) like "the broad blank hull of a battleship".

ØThe implicating detail suggests additional deep-lying meaning and creates undercurrent information. The main function of this detail is to create the implication, especially by depicting the character's inner emotional state.

In a sense all these details contribute to the implication creation, as each of them presupposes wider and deeper understanding of a fact than it is shown explicitly.

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LECTURE 11: Types and Forms of Speech in a Literary Text

11.1.The author's speech.

11.2.The narrator's speech.

11.3.The character's speech.

11.4.The non-personal / represented speech.

The author's viewpoint determines everything in a literary text. But the distribution of the author's opinion in the text is not homogeneous. The amount of opinions represented in one text makes the latter many-sided, polyphonic. So the literary text is heterogeneous, where such types of speech can be distinguished:

·the author's speech,

·the narrator's speech,

·the character's speech,

·the non-personal speech.

11.1. The author's speech

The author's evaluation of the objects, events of the text plays the leading role in forming the text concept. All the main text categories are manifested more explicitly in the author's speech. The author's speech is represented in different discourse types such as narration, description, reflection (or digression) and persuasion.

·Narration is the most easily recognised mode of discourse, which is simply telling a story. A writer employs narrative because his/her purpose is to relate events, either real or imagined in a chronological order. It is dynamic. The author's viewpoint is the least expressed in it, as mainly it is the narrator, who relates the events.

·Description refers to writing that shows what someone or something looks like or what something feels like. The writer's purpose is to paint a picture in words. Description always relies on sensory details, i.e. words or phrases that appeal to the reader's senses. It's used to set the scene or to evoke a mood. It is static. It may be detailed and direct or impressionistic, giving few, but very striking details. Description is manifested in the portrait and landscape.

ØThe portrait is the main means of the character's drawing, informing the reader about the character's physical state, individuality, social status, tastes, habits and likings. The portrait abounds in nouns and adjectives. It is always evalua-

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tive, it explicitly carries the author's modality and evaluation, pointing at his sympathy/antipathy.

ØThe landscape is a background for the events, which may be either static or dynamic. The landscape is also directed to anthropocentricity of the text, as the image of nature is not the aim itself but the means of the character explanation. The landscape may show whether the character is in harmony with nature or in antagonism.

·Reflection (digression) most directly reveals the author's position and consists of the insertion of the material that has no immediate relation to the theme or action. It may be lyrical, philosophical or critical. Sometimes it may be distinguished in an independent passage or even a chapter. Underlining its out-of-time global character, the writers use present forms of the verbs in reflection.

·Persuasion is an attempt to change another person's feelings or opinions by any effective means. In other words, the persuasive mode reflects the writer's attempt to convince the reader that a particular idea or opinion is worth holding, to win the reader over to a certain point of view, or to get the reader to change his/her mind. We see persuasive writing most often in ads, political speeches, newspaper or magazine editorials, voting pamphlets, or other writing in which the writer seeks to make us change our minds or clarify our notions about controversial issues.

The two essential components of persuasive writing are appeals to reason and appeals to emotions, either alone or in combination.

11.2. The narrator's speech

In many cases the story is told by the narrator who shouldn't be confused with the author of the story. The choice of the narrator determines the main stylistic peculiarities of the text, which depends on his/her cultural level and experience.

There may be distinguished 1st and 3rd person narration.

· The 1s person narration is subjective/ personal. All events are shown from the point of view of the eye-witness. The narrator's main function is to create the authenticity of the story. It adds a peculiar intimacy, the narrator reveals his inner world. The author hides behind the figure of a fictitious character - narrator, and presents all events from his/her point of view, and only sporadically emerges in the narrative with his own considerations.

Unlike the omnipotent and omniscient author who knows everything and judges everybody, the narrator is restricted by the possibilities of his per-

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