New direction: Cross-cultural communication

Source or reason: to prevent mistakes (for practical purposes)

Contrastive methods or analysis is not the idea which is new but rather the systematization and the underlying principles. It is common knowledge that comparison is the basic principle in comparative philology.

The method comparison, contrastive we meet in different studies, not only on lexicology. F: contrastive linguistics, contrastive methodology, contrastive phraseology, contrastive culture studies. We should point out that contrastive methods in modern linguistics play an important role, because there are a lot of languages nowadays and the level of international relations, exchanges between countries, learning the foreign languages lead us to compare languages, culture, religion, investigations, values of two nations. According to these methods nowadays there are new directions in linguistics as ethnolinguistics, linguocultural studies, linguocountry studies and cross-cultural communication. They are considered to be new linguistic researches, new linguistic directions of the XXI century.

The aim of that method is to find out similarities it means common features of two languages and differences in both related and non-related languages. Contrastive analysis can be carried out at three linguistic levels: phonology, grammar (morphology and syntax) and lexis. Contrastive analysis is applied to reveal the features of sameness and difference in the lexical meaning and the semantic structure of correlated words in different languages.

Sources and reasons of appearing contrastive methods.

1. In fact contrastive analysis grew as the result of the practical demands of language teaching methodology where it was empirically shown that the errors which are made recurrently by foreign language students can be often traced back to the differences in structure between the target language and the language of the learner;

2. the level of language learning is increasing and it needs to have investigations of two languages. This naturally implies the necessity of a detailed comparison of the structure of a native and a target language which has been named contrastive analysis.

24. Pick out the metaphors from the following word-combinations and prove that they belong to this group:

Green bush, green man - ^, green apple, green with envy -^, the root of a word-^, a fading flower, blooming health-^

25. Explain the etymology of the following words and give characteristic features of etymology of English words:

Sputnik - russian, kindergarten -german, opera- Italian, piano- Italian, potato -italian, tomato-italian, czar-russian, violin -italian, coffee, cocoa, alarm, cargo, steppe-russian, komsomol-russian, banana, balalaika- russian

It is true that English vocabulary, which is one of the most extensive amongst the world’s languages contains an immense number of words of foreign origin. Explanations for this should be sought in the history of the language which is closely connected with the history of the nation speaking the language. An important distinctive feature that Lexicology deals with is etymology. Etymology is the origin of the words. According to origin the word stock may be subdivided into two main sets. The elements of one are native, the elements of the other are borrowed.

A native word is a word which belongs to the original English stock, as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period. A loan word, borrowed word or borrowings is a word taken over another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language.

The native words are further subdivided by diachronic linguistics into the Indo-European stock and Common Germanic origin. The words having cognates in the vocabularies of different Indo-European languages form the oldest layer. Words belonging to the subsets of the native word-stock are for the most part characterized by a wide range of lexical and grammatical valency, high frequency value and a developed polysemy, they are often monosyllabic, show great word-building power and enter a number of set expressions.

The part played by borrowings in the vocabulary of a language depends upon the history of each given language, being conditioned by direct linguistic contacts and political, economic and cultural relationships between nations. It is the vocabulary system of each language that is particularly responsive to every change in the life of the speaking community. The source, the scope and the semantic sphere of the loan words are all dependent upon historical factors. The very fact that up to 70% of the English vocabulary consist of loan words, and only 30% of the words are native is due not to an inherent tolerance of foreign elements but to specific conditions of the English language development.

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26. Identify the neutral compounds in the word combinations given below and write them out in three columns: A) Simple neutral compounds: a heavy topcoat, a car’s windshield , to howl long and wolf-like ;B) Neutral derived compounds: An air-conditioned hall, a glass-walled room, a loud revolver-shot, a high-pitched voice, a snow-white handkerchief, a radio-equipped car, thousands of gold-seekers, a big hunting-knife, a lightish-coloured man; C) Neutral contracted compounds: to fight against H-bomb, big A.A. guns, to go into frantic U-turns, to fix M-Day.

27;42. Define the particular type of word-building process by which the following words were made and say as much as you can about them.

A mike- from microphone; to babysit - from baby-sitter back formation - ; to buzz – from the sound of bee sound-imitation; a torchlight-composition; homelike – composition; theoretical –from theory - affixation; old-fashoned -composition ; to book - conversion; unreasonable - affixation; SALT - shortening; Anglo-American ; to murmur –sound imitation; a pub -; to dilly-dally -reduplication; okay -; eatable - affixation; a greenhorn - composition; a dress coat -conversion; to bang -conversion; merry-go-round -composition; H-bag -shortening; B.B.C. - shortening; to quack – sound imitation; M.P. - shortening; to thunder - conversion; earthquake - composition; D-region - shortening; fatalism - affixation; a find - conversion

28. There are given some examples of semantic change. Explain what type of semantic change do they belong. Prove your answer and give the differentiating features.

e.g. the City –business part of London, Oxford-university town in England, the Tower-originally a fortress and palace, later a prison, now-a museum - specialization

e.g. person-originally a mask used by an actor, now-chairperson, policeperson, salesperson, workperson -specialization

Restriction of meaning is called specialization of meaning or narrowing of meaning. It is gradual process when a word passes from a general sphere to some special sphere of communication. The meaning of a word can specialize when it remains in the general usage. It happens in the case of the conflict between two absolute synonyms when one of them must specialize in its meaning to remain in the language. F: the City –the business part of London, Oxford-university town in England, the Tower-originally a fortress and palace, later a prison, now-a museum, room – originally a space, now-dining room, sleeping room

29. There are given some examples of semantic change. Explain what type of semantic change do they belong. Prove your answer and give the differentiating features.

e.g. knight-originally meant a boy, then a young servant, then a military servant, then a noble man -amelioration

marshal-originally meant a horse man, now it is the highest military rank -amelioration

e.g. villain-originally meant working on a villa, now it means a scoundrel -pejoration

gossip-originally meant god parent, now a chat one’s personal life or matters –pejoration

A change in the connotational meaning may be subdivided into pejoration or degradation of meaning and amelioration or elevation or improvement of the connotational component of meaning. Semantically speaking deterioration or pejoration means the second meaning develops a negative evaluative connotation which was absent in the first meaning. They seem to imply that meanings can become worse which is neither logical nor plausible. Amelioration or elevation is a transfer of the meaning when becomes better in the course of time.

Elevation or amelioration of meaning is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes better in the course of time, e.g. knight – originally meant a boy, then a young servant, then a military servant, then a noble man. Now it is a title of nobility given to outstanding people; marshal originally meant a horse man., now it is the highest military rank.

Degradation or pejoration of meaning is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes worse in the course of time. It is usually connected with nouns denoting common people, e.g. villain-originally meant working on a villa, now it means a scoundrel.

30. Explain the etymology and productivity of the affixes given below. Say what parts of speech can be formed with their help. State out why they are productive.

-ness, -ous, -ly, -y, -dom, -ish, -tion, -ed, -en, -ess, -or, -er, -hood, -less, -ate, -ing, -al, -ful, un-, re-, im-, dis-, over-, ab- 59) surakta bar ,productive:er,ing,ness,ism,ance,y,ish,able,less,ly,ize,ise,ate,un,re,dis

31. Explain the logical associations in the following groups of meaning for the same words. Define the type of transference which has taken place. A. Metonymy B. Metaphor

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Generally speaking, of any semantic change has some associations between the old meaning and the new. There are two kinds of association involved in various semantic changes: similarity of meaning (metaphor) and contiguity of meaning (metonymy). In other words transference based on Resemblance is metaphor. Transference based on contiguity is metonymy. The process of development of a new meaning or a change of meaning is traditionally termed transference. The transfer of the meaning on the basis of comparison or resemblance is called metaphor. For example,

1. similarity of shape, e.g. head of a cabbage, bottleneck, teeth of a comb

2. similarity of position, e.g. foot of a mountain, a page, leg of a table

3. similarity of function, behaviour, e.g. branch of a science

4. similarity of colour, e.g. orange, chestnut

5. metaphors which are based on parts of a human body, e.g. an eye of a needle, mouth of a river, head of an army

6. when proper names become common nouns, e.g. vandals-destructive people, a Don Juan-a lover of many women

32. Give the differences between productive and non-productive affixes and state out the productive affixes from the list: -th, -en, -er, -less, -som, -ness, -hood, -ance 59) surakta bar

33. Analyze the classification types of shortened words (acronyms, abbreviation, ellipsis, final clipping, initial clipping, medial clipping, blending) and prove what type the following words belong to: 1) story-history, phone-telephone, chute-parachute, flu-influenza, tec-detective –initial clipping

2) ad, advert-advertisement, coke-coca-cola, ed-editor, lab-laboratory –final clipping

3) maths-mathematics, specs-spectacles, ma’am-madam –medial clipping

4) daily paper-daily, weekle paper-weekly, pop-popular music, pub-public house, taxi-taximeter-cab, perm-permanent wave-clipping

5) UNESCO, UNO, BBC, MPs, SOS - acronymy

6) pp-pages, ll-lines, cc-centuries, bldg-building, govt-government, doz-dozen, ltd-limited -abbreviation

7) fog – from smoke and fog, slanguage – from slang language, dramedy – from drama and comedy -blending

34. Give possible definition and functions of the semantic field, then, give the differences in their stylistic type of the lexemes belonging to the semantic field of “madness”. Match the lexemes with the categories: 1) literary, academic or technical in character –b 2) colloquialisms -d 3) dated or archaic –c

4) relatively recent in origin –a 5) stylistically neutral –e; 46) suraktyn jauaby

36. From the following list of words choose the neutral words. Then compare and contrast neutral and coloured or marked words, give their importance in speech.

Parent-father *-dad

Chum-friend*-fellow

Large-big*-tremendous

Like*-love-worship

37. Pick up the examples of slang from the list and analyze the sources, usage of them in everyday speech.

Paternal, solar, donkey*, domestic, teenager, chap*, computer, labial, to be on the beam*, hereby, nut*, hitch-hiker*, mental, tape-recorder, the bobby on the beat*.

38. Give the British for the following Americanisms and give some lexical and grammatical differences of BE and AE. Apartment -building, store- floor, baggage- luggage, street car- trolley bus, fall- autumn, elevator -lift, candy-sweet, corn-flour.

39. Choose the examples of metonymy and give characteristic features of metonymy contrasting with metaphor. Knight, villain, saxophone*, eye of a needle, boycott*, the city, china*, marshall, foot of the mountains, mother country, a glass*, the branch of a science. 31) surak pragmo-prof-dyn

40. Find out the dominant synonym from the given list and explain its characteristic features and answer if the dominant synonym be substituted for certain other members of a group of synonyms. a) scent, perfume, aroma, smell*, odour

b) to astonish, to surprise*, to amaze, to puzzle

c) to brood, to reflect, to meditate, to think*

d) to shine*, to flash, to blaze, to gleam, to sparkle

41. State out the differences between formal and informal vocabulary and compare their characteristic features. 1) Formal – a,b,e,f

2) Informal –c,d

43. State out the secondary ways of word-formation from the given list and compare them with your mother tongue. Say if they are the same or different: stress-interchange, sound-interchange, reduplication, blending, sound-imitation

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44. Divide the next principles into aims and objectives of Lexicology. a) to investigate the problems of word structure, word-formation -obj

b) to give systematic description of the word-stock of modern English -aim

c) to deal with the problems of dictionary compiling -obj

d) to investigate the semantic structure of the words -obj

e) to systematize the whole vocabulary –aim

45. Prepare 7-10 problematic questions on the theme ways of formation of phraseological units. Then give your own possible answers to them.

1. What are the differences between primary and secondary ways of formation of phraseological units?

2. What are the differences between phraseological units by means of alliteration and phraseological units by using archaisms?

3. Can y ou give the equivalent phraseological unit in your mother tongue for the primary ways of formation of phraseological units?

4. Can you give the equivalent phraseological unit in your mother tongue for the secondary ways of formation of phraseological units?

5. Which way of formation is more in usage of speech in the primary ways of formation of phraseological units?

6. Which way of formation is more in usage of speech in the secondary ways of formation of phraseological units?

7. Can you give an example for the phraseological unit by means of expressiveness, especially characteristic for forming interjections

46. A number of English idioms that have essentially the same meaning show lexical differences between the British and the American version. There is given a table of idioms, you should find out which of them are BE, or AE. Then give other lexical and grammatical differences of BE and AE. 1) sweep under the carpet - a) sweep under the rug

2) touch wood - b) knock on wood

3) see the wood for the trees - c) see the forset for the trees

4) skeleton in the cupboard - d) skeleton in the closet

5) a home from home - e) a home away from home

6) a drop in the ocean - f) a drop in the bucket

47. Make up sentences or situations using the following idioms. Give their equivalents in your mother tongue.

It is a piece of cake – It is very easy to do, to be caught red-handed –(inf) to catch sb in the act of doing sth wrong or committing a crime, hold your horses – (inf) used to tell sb that they should wait a moment and not be so exited that they take action without thinking about it first , to knock on wood-(American) used when you have just mentioned some way in which you have been lucky in the past, to avoid bringing bad luck, a pain in the neck- it is used for person or thing that is very annoying , let sleeping dog lie – (saying) to avoid mentioning a subject or sth that happened in the past, in order to avoid any problems or arguments, to make a mountain out of a molehill- to make an unimportant matter seem important.

48. Make up 5-8 typical or pragmatic-professional tasks on the theme lexicography, types of dictionaries. Then give your own possible answers to them.

1. Is the same requirements for all dictionaries?

2. What do you think which dictionary is famous nowadays?

3. Which dictionary is more effective bilingual or unilingual?

4. What dictionary do you prefer to use?

5. What is the role of Lexicography in Lexicology?

49. Compare and contrast the semantic and structural classification of phraseological units and give examples. State out the distinctive features. Prove your answer.

2. The semantic classification of phraseological units suggested by V.V.Vinogradov.

Academician Vinogradov classifies phraseological units which was based on the semantic principle and it is considered by some linguists of today to be outdated, because it was the first classification system. Here phraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation of their meaning. He pointed out three types.

1) Fusions where the degree of motivation is very low, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components, they are highly idiomatic and cannot be translated word for word into other languages. These are word-groups with a completely changed meaning, but in contrast to the unities they are demotivated, that is, their meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of the constituent parts.

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2) Unities where the meaning of the whole can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorical or metonymical). These are word-groups with a completely changed meaning, that is, the meaning of the unit does not correspond to the meaning of its constituent parts. They are motivated units or putting it in another way, the meaning of the whole unit can be deduced from the meanings of the constituent parts.

3) Collocations or phraseological combinations where words are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages. These are word-groups with a partially changed meaning. They may be said to be clearly motivated, that is, the meaning of the unit can be easily deduced from the meanings of its constituents. This group contains one component used in its direct meaning, while the other is used metaphorically.

3. The structural classification of phraseological units suggested by A.I.Smirnitsky.

He classified two types. He offered a classification system for English phraseoogical units which is interesting as an attempt to combine the structural and the semantic principles. Here phraseological units are grouped according to the number and semantic significance of their constituent parts.

1) One-top or one-summit. Among one-top he pointed out three structural types;

a) units of the type (verb+postposition type) or verbal-adverbial units. They are equivalent to verbs in which the semantic and the grammatical centres coincide in the first constituent

b) units of the type “to be tired” or units equivalent to verbs which have their grammatical centre in the first constituent but their semantic centre in the second. Some of the units remind the Passive voice in their structure but they have different prepositions with them, while in the Passive voice we can have only prepositions “by or with”

c) prepositional-substantive units either to adverbs or to copulas and having their semantic centre in the substantive constituent and no grammatical centre

One-summit units, which have one meaningful constituents.

2) Two-top or two-summit, multi-summit which have two or more meaningful constituents. They are classified into:

a) attributive-substantive or attributive-nominal equivalent to nouns (black art);

b) verbal-substantive or verb-nominal equivalent to verbs (to take the floor);

c) phrasalogical repetitions equivalent to adverbs (now or never, ups and down, back and forth, cakes and ale, as busy as a bee); such units can be built on antonyms, components in repetitions are joined by means of conjunctions. These units are equivalent of adverbs or adjectives and have no grammar centre. They can also be partly or perfectly idiomatic. F: cool as a cucumber (partly), bread and butter (perfectly)

d) adverbial (every other day)

50. Compare and contrast the etymological and syntactic classification types of phraseological units and give examples. State out the distinctive features. Prove your answer.

. The syntactical classification of phraseological units suggested by I.V.Arnold.

The syntactical principle of classifying phraseological units is based on their ability to perform the same syntactical functions as words.

1) noun phraseological units denoting an object, a person, a living being

2) verb phraseological units denoting an action, a state, a feeling

3) adjective phraseological units denoting a quality

4) adverb phraseological units

5) preposition phraseological units

6) interjection phraseological uints

In I.V.Arnold’s classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings and quotations.

The thematic or etymological classification of phraseological units suggested by L.P.Smith.

On this principle, idioms are classified according to their sorce of origin, things referring to the particular sphere of human activity, of life, of nature, of natural phenomena. L.P.Smith gives in his classification groups of idioms used by sailors, fishermen, soldiers, hunters and associated with the phenomena and conditions of their occupations. This principle of classification is sometimes called etymological. He also makes a special study of idioms borrowed from other languages, but that is only a relatively small part of his classification system.

Here the phraseological units are grouped according to the names of domestic and wild animals, arts, culture, birds, sport, cooking, agriculture, fishermen, sailors.

The thematic principle of classifying phraseological units has real merit but it does not take into consideration the linguistic characteristic features of the phraseological units.

51. Make up a multiple-choice test which consists of 10-15 points on the theme synonyms and antonyms. Then give your own possible answers to them. – теориялык 38-сурагына карап тест курастыр

52. Make a table of showing the similarities and differences between general and special types of dictionaries. Then give examples. Teorialyk shporda 11) suraktyn sony

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