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1. Read the text and answer the question
“What procedures does the scientist follow in his research?”
SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND METHODS OF SCIENCE
It is sometimes said that there is no such thing as the so-called “scientific method”; there are only the methods used in science. Nevertheless, it seems clear that there is often a special sequence of procedures which is involved in the establishment of the working principles of science. This sequence is as follows: (1) a problem is recognized, and as much information as possible is collected; (2) a solution (i.e. a hypothesis) is proposed and the consequences arising out of this solution are deduced; (3) these deductions are tested by experiment, and as a result the hypothesis is accepted, modified or discarded.
2. Read the text to yourself and be ready for a comprehension check-up.
PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE
As students of science you are probably sometimes puzzled by the terms “pure” and “applied” science. Are these two totally different activities, having little or no interconnection? Let us begin by examining what is done by each.
Pure science is primarily concerned with the development of theories (or, as they are frequently called, models) establishing relationships between the phenomena of the universe. When they are sufficiently validated these theories (hypotheses, models) become the working laws or principles of science. In carrying out this work, the pure scientist usually disregards its application to practical affairs, confining his attention to explanations of how and why events occur.
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Does the author give definition of both “pure” and “applied” science? b) Find the word which is used as an equivalent of “sciences”. c) When does a hypothesis become a principle of science? d) What questions is the pure scientist concerned with? e) Find the words equivalent to “how and why events occur”. f) What is usually disregarded by the pure scientist?
3. Read the text and find the answers to the following questions.
SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION: IT’S IMPACT ON
TECHNOLOGY
Mr. A.: The impact of scientific activity on technology is often discussed today. But one thing is not clear. What is meant here: the impact of today’s scientific activity on today’s scientific developments on technology thirty years from now?
Mr. B.: I think there is usually an interval of twenty years or so between the discovery of a new scientific principle and its impact on industry. In the case of the transistor, for example, it took about that long. Some things move a bit faster but it must be admitted that many are even slower.
For example, our computers are based on fundamental discoveries in physics that may be traced back thirty, forty, even fifty years. What will come out of contemporary science, out of the research that is being done today – we just do not know.
Mr. A.: Do you think the isolated inventor is still the usual source of innovation, or has the group inventor been put to the fore now?
Mr. B.: It seems that the lone inventor in most fields has been replaced by the group. But more often than we realize the original brilliant idea is still the product of one man’s genius. He may, however, live in a group environment and have the advantage of the scientific and technical competence and intellectual contacts that come from working with a large group of people.
Mr. A.: You are probably right. But as soon as a new idea is put forward, it requires many people’s efforts before it can be transformed into a product. And at this stage innovation becomes a group and not an individual activity, involving both a sophisticated body of information and a sophisticated technology.
a) What is often discussed to-day? b) What words are equivalent to scientific innovation? c) What is the usual interval between the discovery of a new scientific principle and its impact on industry? d) What example is given to illustrate the above statement? e) What period of time is meant by it took about that long? f) What are computers based on? g) Do we know what will come out of contemporary science? h) How far back were fundamental discoveries in physics made? I) what kinds of inventors are discussed in the text? g) What words are equivalent to the isolated inventory. k) Is the author sure that the lone inventor has been replaced by the group? Give your reason. l) What is the potential role of the lone inventor? m) When does science become a group and not an individual activity? n) What is the Russian equivalent of a sophisticated body of information.
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всеобъемлющая информация; b) as soon as a new idea is put forward; c) The original brilliant idea is still the product of one man’s genius; d) No, he is not; he says, “it seems… “; e) the lone inventor; f) the isolated inventor and the group inventor; g) thirty, forty, even fifty years; h) we just do not know; I) on fundamental discoveries in physics; j) an interval of twenty years or so; k) scientific developments; l) the impact of scientific activity on technology; m) in the case of the transistor, for example, it took about that long; n) an interval of twenty years or so.
4. Read the text to yourself and be ready for a comprehension check-up.
SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE
What is the nature of the scientific attitude, the attitude of the man or woman who studies and applies physics, biology, chemistry or any other science? What are their special methods of thinking and acting? What qualities do we usually expect them to possess?
To begin with, we expect a successful scientist to be full of curiosity – he wants to find out how and why the universe works. He usually directs his attention towards problems which have no satisfactory explanation and his curiosity makes him look for the underlying relationships even the data to be analyzed are not apparently interrelated. He is a good observer, accurate, patient and objective. Furthermore, he is not only critical of the work of others, but also of his own, since he knows man to be the least reliable of scientific instruments.
And to conclude, he is to be highly imaginative since he often looks for data which are not only complex, but also incomplete.
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What qualities do we expect to find in a successful scientist? b) Why do we say that a successful scientist is full of curiosity? c) Why is it difficult to see the underlying relationships? d) Why is he critical of his own work? e) Why is it necessary for him to be highly imaginative? f) Give a Russian equivalent of the title and of the data analyzed and the data to be analyzed.
5. Read words and word combinations, find the Russian equivalents.
- paragraph - использованная литература
- key words - благодарность
- topic sentences - заключение
- logical part - общая часть текста
- logical unit -введение
- passage - аннотация
- title -заголовок
- Abstract or summary- отрывок
- Introduction -логическая часть
- materials - логическая единица
- conclusions -ключевые предложения
- acknowledgments - ключевые слова
- bibliography - абзац или параграф
6. Read and memorize the main stamps of annotation.
1. The article (paper, book, etc.) deals with…- эта статья (работа, книга и т.п.) касается…
2. As the title implies, the article describes…- согласно названию, в статье описывается… (В соответствии с названием, статья описывает…)
3. It is specially noted…- Особенно отмечается…
4. A mention should be made…- Упоминается…
5. …is discussed in detail…- … подробно обсуждается
6. … are noted.- Упоминаются.
7. It is reported…- Сообщается…
8. The text gives valuable information on…- Текст даёт ценную информацию о…
9. Much attention is given to…- Большое внимание уделяется…
10. The article is of great help to…- Эта статья окажет большую помощь тем…
11. The article is of interest to…- Эта статья представляет интерес для…
12. It (the article) gives a detailed analysis of…- Она (статья) даёт детальный (подробный) анализ…
13. It draws our attention to…- Она (статья, работа) привлекает наше внимание к…
14. The difference between the terms…and…should be stressed. - Следует подчеркнуть различие между терминами…и…
15. It shoud be stressed (emphasized) that…- Следует подчеркнуть, что…
16. …is proposed.- Предлагается…
17. …are examined…- Проверяются (рассматриваются)…
18. …are discussed.- Обсуждаются…
19. An option permits…- Выбор позволяет…
20. The method proposed…- Предлагаемый метод…
21. Etc.- И т.д.
7. Read the text and translate it.
HYBRID COMPUTER COMBINES BEST OF ANALOG AND DIGITAL
A “hybrid” computer that introduced a new concept in engineering and scientific computation by combining the best operational features of analog and digital computers into an integrated system, was demonstrated for the first time by its manufacturer, Electronic Associates, Inc., of Long Branch, N.J., at the Western Joint Computer Conference (the U.S.A.).
The new computer was designed primarily as a scientific instrument for a range of research, design and development applications in industry, defense and civilian space programs as well as commercial application for a variety of design and production problems.
HYDEC (hybrid digital/analog computer) is the result of a four-year-long research program conducted by computation division at Princeton, and represents the first major change of direction in computer development in 10 years.
The new computer HYDEC combines the traditional advantages of both analog and digital computers – the analog’s speed, lower cost, ease of programming and the digital’s capacity for data storage , decision making logic operations and time sharing of components - into one centralized system to achieve a computation efficiently that is well beyond the limits of either computer used alone.
8. Read the summary and translate it.
ABSTRACT (SUMMARY)
As the title implies, the paper describes a new computer, which was demonstrated at the Western Joint Computer Conference ( the U.S.A.). The name of this computer is HYDAC (hybrid digital/analog computer), and it is designed for different applications. It is reported that the HYDAC is the result of a four-year-long research program. Much attention is given to the fact that the HYDAC combines the traditional advantages of analog and digital computers into one centralized system.
The paper is of interest to specialists working in the computer field.
9. Find the English equivalents of the sentences.
1.) Эта статья представляет интерес для специалистов, работающих в области ЭВМ.
2.) Большое внимание уделяется тому, что ХАЙДЕК соединяет традиционные преимущества аналоговых и цифровых компьютеров в одну централизованную систему.
3.) Сообщается, что ХАЙДЕК явился результатом четырёхлетней научно-исследовательской программы.
4.) Он предназначается для различных применений.
5.) Согласно названию, в статье описывается новый гибридный компьютер, который демонстрировался на конференции в США.
10. Read the students’ articles and give them summary.
THE PHENOMENON OF A “SINKING” ICE
Jack London in his story "On the fortieth mile" describes a surprising phenomenon - the bottom ice. This phenomenon, from eyewitnesses, Lona Mack Feyna, looked very strange:
”Then we drifted, with a head over other side, peering down through the sparkly water. For the world like the days I splint with the pearls, watching the coral banks growing the same as so many gardens under the sea.
There it was, the anchor-ice, clinging and clustering to every rock, after the manner of the white coral.
'But the best of the sight was to come. Just after clearing the tail of the riffle, the water turns quick the color of milk, an' the top of it in wee circles, as when the grayling rise in the spring, or there's a splatter of wet from the sky. It was the anchor-ice coming up. To the right, to the lift, as far as ever a man cud see, the water was covered with the same.
An' like so much porridge it was, slicking along the bark of the canoe, sticking like glue to the paddles”
It was very unbelievable. Everyone knows that at four degrees of heat and normal pressure, the water density anomaly - and at a temperature above and below its density is less. As a result of further cooling of this amazing liquid layers with temperatures ranging from 0 to 4 ° C are displaced upward, and the density of ice at the freezing point is 0.92 g/cm3, i.e., 0.08 g/cm3 less than the density of the underlying water.
But common sense leads us to the fact that: anchor ice can exist in nature. With the rapid severe frosts in the northern rivers water can super cool below freezing temperatures, sinking down as a result of mixing and crystallizing on the rocks, snags, and even suspended in the water sands. Anchor ice is lighter than water and is held down, only if it is frozen to underwater objects or the ground. This crystal modification of water ice with a hexagonal structure – is the only possible on the surface of our planet.
There is something similar is also in the bottom of the oceans, seas and some lakes in huge numbers, but this is not frozen pure water. It is about gas hydrates, primarily methane and CO2; from the standpoint of physical chemistry, it is very special substance.
And if it is possible, in principle, the existing for heavy ice? To answer this question, we must have look closely how all hard water is arranged. And the first glance at it shows that the situation is very difficult. It is now known fourteen fraternal varieties of crystalline water ice (one of them takes two guises), as well as a lot of amorphous ice. Such a large variety of structures due to the fact that the ice were not built of round atoms, and strongly asymmetric water molecules. These molecules are connected in the monolith hydrogen bonds.
Of course, it is easy to meet for a man the ice. With the rest he usually does not face. Once it has been suggested that for many millions of years of ice in Antarctica or Greenland could become proton ordered ice XI. However, a thorough study of core samples recovered from deep ice sheets, does not confirmed this hypothesis. There are points of view that by overriding continental plates, where there are huge pressures, accumulate and can be formed huge amounts of ice VII, but this hypothesis has not been experimentally verified. Some rare species of halo around the Sun and the Moon can be explained by the of unusual ice presence in the atmosphere, particularly ice. Further evidence of the existence of such ice in the air is the odd snowflake, in which the axes of the adjacent intergrowth crystals are 70 °: the embryo for these snowflakes could be a crystal of ice.
On the planets of the solar system one can meet more different ice, especially on ice-covered shield satellites of Jupiter and Saturn. Calculation of density and heat fluxes from the surface of satellites allows concluding that Ganymede and Cellist must be ice shell, which alternate ice I, III, V and VI. At Titan's ice doesn’t form not bark, but the mantle. Its inner layer consists of ice VI, ice, other high-pressure and castrate hydrates, and the top is ice I.
In general, the crystalline ice it high pressure can be well represented in the solar system very well, and the man, who investigated to acquire them, is inevitably confronted with these substances. "For many years I have researched the ice and never stop wondering: how different those structures, are which can produce water. Indeed, after words of Pindar, is the noblest substance on the Earth, "- says the doctor of chemical sciences, GG Malenkov from the Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry named by AN Framing. His review, written in collaboration with the candidate of physical and mathematical sciences, EA Zheligovskaya served as the basis for this article.
SOME PROBLEMS OF THE GIFTED STUDENTS
AND WAYS OF THEIR DECISION
Baby gifts - are the world’s major, comprehensive, psycho-pedagogical, social problem in all developed countries. Early revealing, training and education of gifted children is one of the perspective directions in development of the educational system. This modern problem was actual in the past also. Let's list men, whom teachers considered to be bad and stupid pupils at school: Newton, James Walt, Edison, Walter Scot, Darwin, Morse, Franklin, Byron, Spenser, Edgar Poe, Burns, Sheridan, Serov, Gogol, Gertsen, Belinsky, etc.
According to sociological data, the gifted children from the general population are 20 - 30%, but only 1-1, 5 % of them provide scientific progress.
Gifted children are considered to have a high level of ability, allowing him to achieve much success in certain areas.
On the other hand, outstanding mental manifestations of the child may be only temporary. During the development - simultaneously with the strengthening and enrichment of intellectual properties, rising to a new level - limiting and even the loss of some children's opportunities are observed. Nevertheless it is necessary to diagnose and identify gifted children, not only because they are creative and intellectually potential, but in order to eliminate any discomfort that may arise in their dealing with ordinary children.
Problems of gifted children. Sports and artistic talents are perceived positively, but high intelligence does not produce sympathy. People are irritated by intellectuals, because of:
1. Dislike for educational institution, because curriculum does not match their abilities and very dull for them.
2. Gambling interests. Gifted children like complex games and don’t like that attract their peers of average ability.
3. Conformity. Gifted children, rejecting the standard requirements, so reluctant to conformism, especially if those standards are contrary to their interests.
4. Diving into philosophical problems. They think about such phenomena as death, life after death, religious beliefs.
5. The discrepancy between the physical, intellectual and social development. They prefer to play and communicate with older children. It is difficult to become leaders for them.
Time to time, one or other newspaper has a surprising message about entering the college student 13-14 years. So, someone studied at school only 6-7 years instead of 10-11 years. Very often the developed child goes as well as all six - seven years in first grade, but then rapidly finished it sometimes in the first academic year; he is transferred in subsequent classes. It also happens that the "jump" through the class or several such "jumps" occur earlier as adolescence. Previously, this is required a special permission from the authorities of public education. Now, under the Regulation on the upper secondary school, the right to take external exams for any class and for the school in general is officially given.
Today various strategies of training are developed with the gifted children on the basis of which the development of special curriculums is carried out. To the basic strategy of training of children with high intellectual potentially acceleration (early receipt in school, the accelerated training in a usual class, «jump» through a class, training in profile classes, training in a private school and so forth) and enrichment (faster promotion to the maximum cognitive levels in the field of the selected subject, expansion of a studied field of knowledge due to reception of an additional material to traditional rates) are carried out.
There are also other forms of the organization abroad. One of them - allocation inside of one class of groups with different levels of intellectual endowments. Gifted have an opportunity to study in the class, but in group of the contemporaries close to them on a level of abilities. Positive, but not so appreciable effect one more form of the organization - gives creation of groups with high I.Q. on the basis of several classes. It is very important to attract the attention to problems of the gifted children and distribute the information on endowments and it is played by various associations and associations of teachers, psychologists and parents of the gifted children.
At the same time, at the reasonable and scientifically-proved approach to formation and development of gifted children with the use of the Internet, it is possible to be guided by following priority directions which are easily looked through the analysis of resources existing at present at the Internet for gifted children, parents and teachers working with them:
· Use of a network the Internet for distribution of the information on specificity of training of the gifted children, a technique, psychology, etc.; an output on various target groups of the interested readers; creation of network communities of the Internet users, engaged endowments;
· Search and revealing of the gifted children, on-line testing;
· The psychological and methodical consulting help to families in which the gifted children receive house education;
· Remote training the gifted children, carrying out of the various rates, separate employment, research projects and programs;
· Remote individual support of the gifted pupils, etc.
These children can study independently, and with the support of the skilled mentor.
Mentors as the form of work with the gifted children.
In this country this form is not widely spread. The individual head, the instructor caring about the development of special abilities and about the general cultural level of the uncommon pupil - the rare phenomenon enough. At colleges it is possible to meet science officers, students who spend additional activity at the interest. Much closer personal communications between the instructor and the pupil can be extremely important. The need for such mutual relations is especially great for pupils with high intelligence, with unusual inquiries with which it is difficult to deal in conditions of school training.
PERSONAL SECURITY PROVIDING AS THE BASIS OF THE ENTIRE NATIONAL SECURITY
It is known that in the new millennium the main sources of energy will be still non-renewable natural resources - oil and gas, therefore, the real struggle for energy and other resources, which is becoming less and less, is the most pressing problems of mankind. In Russia 35% of stocks of the world's resources are concentrated and more than half of strategic raw materials. Every citizen of our country has in units 11, 7 planetary resources, while at a U.S. resident - 2 arbitrary units, Western Europe - 0, 67.
Struggle for the world's raw materials are very different in aim, it is aimed to achieve the results with minimal loss of life, without destroying of the existing economic infrastructure while preserving access to sources of raw materials and resources. The psychological and information warfare on a conversion of consciousness and spiritual redefinition of the Russian population, with an emphasis on children and youth, is gaining momentum, thanks to the internal political situation, which strengthens the influence of external forces.
The technological revolution fundamentally changed the system of international relations. Borders are becoming technologically permeable, and the states themselves have to unite to respond to scientific and technical challenges.
Now there is the possibility of using information and communication technologies in order to penetrate down to the extraterritorial interference in the internal affairs of other states, a hostile media companies to manipulate public opinion.
The greatest danger, as we believe, are those related to scientific and technological revolution challenges as an opportunity to use information and communication technology against other States in the military and political purposes, the dissemination of terrorist danger. Worth mentioning are the increase in scientific and technological inequality states that prevents their socio-economic development.