Файл: Na_puti_k_dolgosrochnoy_strategii_stran_BRIKS_angl.pdf

Progress through Sharing Knowledge and Innovation 

|

 139

Main actors in the National Innovation System

Parliament

The National People’s Congress is the highest organ of state power. Its permanent 

body is the Standing Committee. The National People’s Congress and its Standing 

Committee exercise the legislative power of the State to enact and amend basic 

laws governing criminal offences, civil affairs, state institutions and other matters.

Government and intermediary agencies

Central and local governments have a strong influence on economic activity, 

controlling the land, large investment projects, infrastructure building and access 

to important markets such as automobiles and finance. There are severe regional 

disparities between regions, despite fiscal, regional, FDI and S&T policies in the 

2000s (ibid.; Ping, 2013).

With regard to S&T, the main institutions are the Ministry of Science and 

Technology

57

 and the Ministry of Education. Regarding technology policy, the 

Ministry of Commerce, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology 

and the National Development and Reform Commission are the key actors. 

Other ministries with responsibility for health, defence and security, energy and 

transportation can also influence STI policies (Liu and Liu, 2009; Ping, 2013).

The National Science Foundation of China and the Department of Basic 

Research of MOST are two of the most important support agencies. Regions also 

have their own regional science foundation systems (Liu and Liu, 2009). 

Academia and higher education system

In 2012 there were 2442 HEIs. There were also 811 institutions providing post-

graduate programmes, out of which 534 were regular HEIs and 277 research 

institutions. In the same year there were 400,000 Chinese students studying 

abroad. A large proportion of these students end up employed in the high-tech 

sector, which gives China an important network advantage. There were 3,181 

57. There are 25 affiliated agencies listed on the Ministry of Science and Technology website: Office for National Science 

and Technology Awards, Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China, Center for Science and Technology 

Personnel Exchange and Development Service, Center of Logistics, Expert House, Changdao Training Center, China Rural 

Technology Development Center, Torch High Tech Industrial Development Center, China Technology Market Management 

and Promotion Center, Management Center for Innofund, China National Center for Biotechnology Development, High 

Tech Research and Development Center (Administrative Center for Basic Research), Intellectual Property Rights Center, 

Information Center, National Center for Remote Sensing, Supervision Service Center for Science and Technology Funds, 

China International Nuclear Fusion Energy Program Execution Center (ITER China), Chinese Academy of Science and 

Technology for Development, China Science and Technology Exchange Center (Sino-Japanese Technology Cooperation 

Center), Cross-Straits Science and Technology Exchange Center, Shanghai Training Center, Administrative Center for 

China’s Agenda 21, National Science and Technology Infrastructure Center, Evaluation Center, and National Science 

and Technology Venture Capital Development Center.

BRICS Long-Term Strategy

140 

|

associations or academic societies in 2012 (China Statistics Press, 2013: tables 

20-44, 20-12, 20-10).

In the past, most universities were not involved in R&D, but nowadays they 

play a very important role in basic research. In 1998, programme 985 was created 

to develop nine elite universities (C9) to world-class level.

58

 By the end of 2007 

there were 39 universities being sponsored. One of the most interesting features 

of the C9 is their interconnectedness through credit recognition, exchange 

programmes and collaboration in post-graduate education. The productivity of these 

universities helps explain the rapid increase of Chinese scientific output (Battelle, 

2010). For instance, researchers need to produce a certain number of publications 

not only for promotion but also to supervise graduate students.

Research institutes

Before 1980, government research institutes were the main institutions in the S&T 

system, and were given strong financial incentives to conduct applied research. 

They are still among the most important institutions in China’s NIS. According to 

official statistics, in 2012 there were 3,764 government scientific R&D institutions, 

of which 710 subordinated to central level and 2964 subordinated to local level. 

They employed 343,978 full-time equivalent R&D personnel (ibid.: Table 20-43). 

The Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) is one of the most relevant research 

institutions. By 2008 it had more than 50,000 regular staff. The Academic Divisions 

of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CASAD) is China’s highest advisory body 

in S&T. By the end of 2012 there were 104 research institutes, 5 universities and 

supporting organisations and 22 invested holding enterprises linked to the CAS.

59

The Chinese Academy of Engineering and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 

are also very relevant actors.

Enterprises, technoparks and special economic zones

Many multinational and domestic companies have R&D centres in China. 

In 2012 there were 47,204 industrial enterprises of the designated size developing 

R&D activities (13.7 per cent of the total) (ibid.: table 20-45). They employed 

2,246,179 full-time equivalent R&D personnel. This represents a significant 

increase from 17,075 firms in 2004 (6.2 per cent of the total), which employed 

542,000 full-time equivalent R&D personnel. The industrial sector accounts for 

more than 60 per cent of total R&D expenses (Fan, 2014). 

58. Fudan University, Harbin Institute of Technology, Nanjing University, Peking University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 

Tsinghua University, University of Science and Technology, Xi’an Jiao Tong University and Zhejiang University.
59. See: <http://goo.gl/49cMd5>. 

Progress through Sharing Knowledge and Innovation 

|

 141

In 2012 there were 63,926 high-tech enterprises in 105 development 

areas (China Statistics Press, 2013: table 20-60). High-tech zones provide tax 

incentives and a new governance model, reduce transaction costs and promote 

active interaction and close cooperation among firms. Most of them are spin-offs 

from universities and government research institutes, new private firms and 

FDI enterprises. From 1999 to 2004 there were more than 2,000 spin-offs from 

universities each year. Lenovo is an example of a spin-off from the CAS. 

Regulatory and policy framework of the National Innovation System

Main recent plans/programmes

The National High-Tech Programme (“Programme 863”) was launched in 1986 

to develop high technology in the areas of biology, space, information, lasers, 

automation, energy and new material. The Spark Programme aimed to introduce 

technology in rural areas, and the Torch Programme encourages entrepreneurial 

activity among researchers.

The National Basic Research Programme (“Programme 973”) was launched 

in 1997. It is a national mission-oriented science programme, targeting strategic 

areas such as energy, information, health and materials. This programme usually 

involves several research institutes or universities.

The Knowledge Innovation Programme was launched in 1998, allowing 

the CAS to reorganise itself in the face of the growing role of the universities. 

The main goal is to make the CAS a leading international basic research institution, 

by enabling it to attract key scientists. The One Hundred Talents Programme aims 

to attract talented Chinese scientists back to China. It has helped the CAS attract 

more than 400 scientists (Liu and Liu, 2009). There are several other similar 

programmes, some of them from local governments: the 1,000 Talents Programme, 

the 1,000 Young Talents Programme, Programme 321, Programme 530 and the 

Peacock Programme (Fan, 2014). 

The Outline of a National Medium- and Long-Term Plan for the Development 

of Science and Technology (2006-2020) was issued at the National Science and 

Technology Conference held in 2006 and aims to strengthen indigenous innovation, 

especially in domestic companies (Ping, 2013). Several related policies stressed the 

importance of improving the intellectual property rights system and the establishment 

of international standards (ibid.).

Several programmes have been created to support S&T talents: the 11

th

Five-Year Plan on the Post-Doctoral System, the National Outline for a Medium- 

and Long-Term Talent Development Plan (2010-2020),

60

 the Yangtze River 

60. See: <http://cfd.seu.edu.cn/s/583/t/2172/73/24/info95012.htm>. 

BRICS Long-Term Strategy

142 

|

Scholar Programme, the Truth Award, the Special Research Fund for University 

Doctorate-Awarding Units, the Fund for Overseas Chinese Scholars, Guidelines on 

Implementation of an Incentive Distribution System for Indigenous Innovation in 

Enterprises, and Interim Procedures for Strengthening Innovative Talent Training 

in the Implementation of Major Projects (Ping, 2013).

There are policies to improve credit conditions for small and medium 

enterprises, such as the Notification on Strengthening the Construction of 

the Credit Guarantee System for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises and 

Implementing Regulations of Financial Policies to Support National Key 

Science and Technology Programmes. 

Public procurement policies give priority to indigenous innovative products. 

Foreign companies that are willing to transfer technology to local companies will 

receive priority listing over other candidates (Liu and Liu, 2009). 

Financial and tax mechanisms

The National Science Foundation of China is mainly funded by government 

resources. There are many types of support, ranging from teams to talented scientists, 

from general to key projects. It operates on a peer review basis (ibid.). Subsidies 

for R&D laboratories are provided for 512 selected large companies. Among 

these, 200 large firms were selected for support under the National Medium-and 

Long-Term Strategic Plan.

Chinese tax incentives for R&D started in 1996, and are significant compared 

to international standards (Araújo, 2013).

Relevant legislation

The relevant regulation includes the Patent Law,

61

 Technology Contract Law, 

Science and Technology Progress Law, Agricultural Popularisation Law, Decision 

on Strengthening Technology Innovation, Developing High Technology and 

Realising Industrialisation, Provisions on Promoting the Commercialisation of 

Scientific and Technological Achievements, Implementation and Regulations for 

the Science and Technology Progress Award, Regulations for the Natural Sciences 

Award, and the Science and Technology Progress Law, among others (Ping, 2013). 

1.1.5 South Africa 

South Africa leads in sub-Saharan Africa in terms of its economy and innovation 

capabilities. It has a long history of establishing and creating the institutions and 

actors of the NIS. Scientific organisations (such as astronomy, and a geological 

61. Patents in China are registered under three categories: invention, utility model and design.

Progress through Sharing Knowledge and Innovation 

|

 143

survey) go as far back into the colonial period as the 18th century, and universities 

were established in the late 19th century. There are pockets of intensive interaction 

and participation in global innovation networks, and a large demand for high skills 

which the education and training system struggles to meet.

The country has experienced deep changes since the end of apartheid. In the 

1990s its S&T policies were redesigned in accordance with the NIS concept, but 

there are problems in implementing these policies effectively. Challenges relate to 

its context of high levels of inequality and poverty alongside rapid economic growth 

and wealth in some sectors; the strength of the higher education system and its 

role in scientific research; and a lack of maturity of government systems (Kruss 

and Lorentzen, 2009). The manufacturing sector’s share of GDP is decreasing. 

On the other hand, some service sectors – such as banking and finance – are well 

developed and operate at the global level. 

South Africa faces several key issues that prevent it from growing into an 

important actor in the global innovation arena. The human capital needed for a 

sustainable innovation system is lacking. Although there are good universities, there 

is a need to improve the quality of primary and secondary schooling, particularly 

in science and mathematics, to grow the pool of candidates available for higher 

education and S&T careers. One of the key challenges for the near future is the low 

capacity to train university professors and researchers. PhD programmes have been 

targeted as a priority, but, given the small pipeline, the output remains low. The current 

staff are ageing and not being adequately replaced (Dube and Ngulube, 2013).

Main actors in the National Innovation System

Parliament

The South African Parliament consists of the upper house (National Council of 

Provinces) and the lower house (National Assembly). The main committees that deal 

with innovation are the Portfolio Committees on Higher Education and Training, 

on Science and Technology and on Trade and Industry and the Select Committee on 

Economics and Business Development. Important innovation-related committees 

also include the Portfolio Committees on Energy, on Agriculture, Forestry and 

Fisheries and on Economic Development. 

Government and intermediary agencies

The Department of Science and Technology (DST) provides the guidelines for and 

coordinates the NIS. The Departments of Education, Trade and Industry, Minerals 

and Energy, Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Agriculture, Water Affairs and 

Forestry, and Health also participate in the NIS. The Council on Higher Education 

and the National Advisory Council on Innovation are key advisory bodies (Kruss 

and Lorentzen, 2009) .The National Research Foundation is an intermediary agency