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B R I C S
more than $18.9 billion in Brazil up to 2014. In May 2015 two countries signed the
agreements, under which the two countries will set up an action plan to encourage
cooperation in industrial production, helping Brazil to improve its sagging infra
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structure ahead of the 2016 Games in Rio de Janeiro. The plan will also upgrade
two-way trade away from the current focus on resources to a more comprehensive,
balanced pattern
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.
There’s also wide range of bilateral agreements and institutions to support co
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operation between the two countries, starting from Cooperation on Science and
Technology of 1982 to July 2014 when Brazil and China signed 54 new agreements
during an official visit from Chinese President Xi Jinping to Brazil. The agreements
and memorandums of understanding were signed to cover areas such as technol-
ogy, telecommunications, remote sensing, defense, energy and education and on
to above mentioned intentions for Action Plan.
India-Brazil bilateral trade has increased substantially in the last two decades.
with the overall bilateral trade standing at US$ 11.424 billion and growing from
20.45% in 2013 toUS$ 9.488 billion, which itself was a 10.7% lower than the bilat
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eral trade figure of US$ 10.62 billion in 2012. Last year India became the 7th big
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gest exporter to Brazil and 8th biggest importer from Brazil. Crude-Diesel formed
a huge share in our bilateral trade, close to 50 percent. Indian exports to Brazil
include many value added products like diesel, organic chemicals, pharmaceuti-
cals, engineering products and textiles. Brazil’s exports to India are dominated by
commodities, such as crude oil, sugar, soya oil, copper ore, gold etc.
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South Africa and Brazil
enjoy strong bilateral relations as symbolized by high
level visits and various Agreements signed across a number of sectors since 1994.
The relationship between the two countries is underpinned by a common desire to
influence the global agenda in the 21st century in a manner that reflects the aspira
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tions of developing countries.
Trade between South African and Brazil has been growing steadily, but exports
to Brazil still represent a small percentage of South Africa’s global exports. South
Africa’s top five products for Brazil include anthracite (coal), precious metals, plas
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tics, aluminum and car engines (used to complement Brazilian assembled cars for
export), meat, sweets and confectionaries, machinery and ore.
On the investment front, Brazil is a latent global foreign investor, with the major
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ity of its investments having been directed toward resource extraction (mining, oil
and gas) and construction. Investment into South Africa in the manufacturing sector
is still very low but with growing potential. Moreover, there is a joint Commission.
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India and China
officially resumed trade in 1978, signing the Most Favored
Nation (MFN) Agreement in 1984. India-China bilateral trade reached 51.8 billion
USD in 2008 (from 2.92 billion USD in 2000), making China India’s largest trading
partner in goods, replacing the United States of America.
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India-China economic relations have a strategic purpose Several institutional
mechanisms have been established for enhancing economic cooperation between
the two countries. Besides the India-China Joint Economic Group on Economic
Relations and Trade, Science and Technology (JEG) and the India-China Strategic
and Economic Dialogue (SED), a Financial Dialogue has also been taking place
between the two countries since 2006.
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There are several institutional mechanisms for India’s economic and com
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mercial engagement with China. India-China Joint Economic Group on Economic
Relations and Trade, Science and Technology (JEG) is a ministerial-level dia
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logue mechanism established in 1988 during the visit of former Prime Minister
Rajiv Gandhi to China. A Joint Study Group (JSG) was set up after former Prime
Minister Vajpayee’s visit to China in June 2003 to examine the potential comple
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mentarities between the two countries in expanded trade and economic coopera-
tion. As per its recommendation, a Joint Task Force (JTF) was set up to study
the feasibility of an India-China Regional Trading Arrangement. JTF Report was
completed in October 2007. There are also Joint Working Groups on Trade, Agri
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culture and Energy. In Dec 2010, both countries agreed to set up the India-China
Strategic and Economic Dialogue (SED). The first SED took place in Beijing on
September 26, 2011.
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South Africa and China
enjoying formal diplomatic relations since the end of
apartheid proposed that 2014 be heralded as the “Year of South Africa in China and
that 2015 be declared the Year of China in South Africa”. South Africa is China’s
largest trading partner in Africa and the bilateral trade volume accounts for more
than a quarter of China-Africa trade. According to the Beijing Declaration, China
and South Africa will work together to improve the structure of bilateral trade by
encouraging the trade of high value-added manufactured goods and increasing
China’s investment in South Africa. Also deeper cooperation in infrastructure devel
-
opment was proclaimed to fully implement Beijing Action Plan 2013 to 2015 of the
Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC), with the sixth Ministerial to be held
in Johannesburg in 2015.
In many respects,
South Africa and India
share a common vision on a range
of global issues and domestic challenges, including the need to address the chal-
lenges of poverty, underdevelopment, deepening democracy, protecting human
rights and reforming institutions of global governance.
South Africa’s trade relations with India have flourished since the establishment
of full diplomatic relations in 1993. India is the largest South African trading partner
in South Asia. South Africa’s main exports to India include coal, gold, diamonds and
phosphates, while South Africa’s main imports include pharmaceuticals, textiles
and clothing, spices, machinery and metal products. South Africa currently ranks
second in the list of African exporters to India.
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Economic relations within BRICS
There’s high rate of interstate cooperation within BRICS with an increase from
27 to 276 billion USD between 2002 and 2012. BRICS trade volumes account for
20 percent of the global total, but compared with the proportions of population and
territories of other members, they are lagging.
As a result of last year’s6
th
annual BRICS Summit held in Fortaleza the Agree
-
ment on the New Development Bank and the Treaty for the Establishment of
a BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement was signed. These institutions will pos-
sess a total of 200 billion USD. The Leaders also adopted a key decision on launch
-
ing comprehensive talks regarding the BRICS Strategy for Economic Partnership
and a draft BRICS Roadmap for BRICS Trade, Economic and Investment Coopera-
tion due for Summit in Ufa.
According to statistics of the World Trade Organization (WTO), the participation
of BRICS in global exports more than doubled between 2001 and 2011, from 8% to
16%. In those eleven years, their total exports have grown more than 500%, while
total global exports grew 195% in the same period. Between 2002 and 2012, intra-
BRICS trade increased 922%, from US$ 27 to 276 billion, while between 2010-
2012, BRICS´ international trade rose 29%, from US$ 4.7 to 6.1 trillion dollars
78
.
Energy cooperation
Another important area is energy cooperation. Energy security has become one
of the main issues for BRICS countries. It is incorrect to assume that BRICS coun-
tries’ energy security strategies have less in common than previously believed. For
China (became net importer in 1993) and India, the two main energy consumers, it is
about maintenance of sufficient energy supplies, prices commensurate with purchas
-
ing power, and guaranteed safe delivery of energy resources. For energy suppliers
like Russia it is about maintenance of sufficient energy demand, prices conducive to
national revenue growth, and guaranteed control over export of energy resources
79
.
Countries overlook
Brazil
is estimated to be the eighth-largest energy consumer in the world and
the third-largest in the Americas (according to US EIA, 2013). Total primary energy
consumption in Brazil has increased by more than one-third in the past decade
because of sustained economic growth. The largest share of Brazil’s total energy
consumption are oil, hydroelectricity and natural gas.
In 2014 Brazil was also the 10
th
largest energy producer in the world (particularly
oil and ethanol). According to the Empresa de Pesquisa Energética (EPE), ethanol
production represented 19% of Brazil’s total energy production compared to 15%
a decade ago. Increasing domestic oil production has been a long-term goal of the
78
http://brics6.itamaraty.gov.br/about-brics/economic-data
79
Su-yuan Sun / Dilemmas and Obstacles: Multilateral Energy Cooperation Among BRICS Coun
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tries URL: www.saias.ecnu.edu.cn/idown4875.html
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Brazilian government, and recent discoveries of large offshore, pre-salt oil deposits
could transform Brazil into one of the largest oil producers in the world
80
.
According to some experts, Brazil tends to view foreign investment in Brazilian
energy resources from the perspective of economic interests. Compared to Russia,
Brazilian policy to foreign investors is more favorable and liberal thus offering pos
-
sibility to act as a promoter of BRICS energy security, even if limited.
Energy is a driving force in
Russia’s economy
on which all other sectors
(industrial, agricultural, commercial, and governmental) operate within. Russia is
a major producer and exporter of oil and natural gas, and its economy largely de-
pends on energy exports. Russia’s economic growth continues to be driven by en
-
ergy exports, given its high oil and gas production and the elevated prices for those
commodities. Oil and gas revenues accounted for 52% of federal budget revenues
and over 70% of total exports in 2012, according to PFC Energy.
Breakdown of Russian energy:
• Russia was the world’s third-largest producer of oil (after the United States
and Saudi Arabia) in 2014.
• Russia was the second-largest producer of natural gas in 2012 (second to
the United States).
•
Russia is the third-largest generator of nuclear power in the world and fourth-
largest in terms of installed capacity.
With ten nuclear reactors under construction, Russia was the second country in
the world in terms of number of reactors under construction in 2012, according to
the International Atomic Energy Agency
81
. Energy industry remains strategic indus-
try for the country.
China
became the largest global energy consumer in 2011 and is the world’s
second-largest oil consumer behind the United States. At the end of 2013 it also
surpassed the USA as the world’s largest net importer of petroleum and other liq
-
uids, in part because of China’s rising oil consumption. China’s oil consumption
growth accounted for about 43% of the world’s oil consumption growth in 2014.
Rapidly increasing energy demand for petroleum and other liquids, has made Chi-
na influential in world energy markets.
China’s national oil companies (PetroChina, Sinopec, and CNOOC) have rap
-
idly expanded their purchases of international oil and natural gas assets since 2008
through direct acquisitions of equity and financial loans in exchange for oil supplies
in order to secure more oil and gas supplies, make long-term commercial invest-
ments, and gain technical expertise in more challenging oil and natural gas plays
82
.
For China, having stable and sustainable access to energy supply is of vital
importance to its economic growth. Energy security in China has become an issue
of the “high politics” and national security. As some experts argue, despite the fact
that the Chinese government has been gradually embracing the notion of interna-
80
Brazil URL: http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis.cfm?iso=BRA
81
Russia URL: http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis.cfm?iso=RUS
82
China URL: http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis.cfm?iso=CHN
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tional energy cooperation and has accepted the win-win logic, China has not yet
abandoned self-help logic as its energy diplomacy principle.
83
India’s
energy strategy is shaped by a shortage of energy and the scarcity of
indigenous reserves. Achieving energy security to guarantee the current trajectory
of its economic growth is one of the strategic themes with greatest impact on India’s
search for its place in the emerging international balance of power. India’s energy
policy above all focuses on securing energy sources to meet the needs of its grow-
ing economy
84
.
India was the fourth-largest energy consumer in the world after China, the Unit
-
ed States, and Russia in 2011, and despite having notable fossil fuel resources,
the country has become increasingly dependent on energy imports. The country
was the fourth-largest consumer of crude oil and petroleum products in the world in
2013, after the United States, China, and Japan. The country depends heavily on
imported crude oil, mostly from the Middle East.
India’s government promotes the country’s refining sector, and India became
a net exporter of petroleum products in 2001. India has several world-class refineries,
and the private sector has significant investments in the country’s refining industry.
Despite having large coal reserves and a healthy growth in natural gas produc
-
tion over the past two decades, India is increasingly dependent on imported fossil
fuels. The current petroleum and natural gas minister, Dharmendra Pradhan, who
took office in late May 2014, reiterated the goal of making India self-sufficient in
energy resources. India is also looking to further develop and harness its various
renewable energy sources.
85
South Africa’s
energy sector is critical to its economy, as the country relies
heavily on its large-scale, energy-intensive coal mining industry. South Africa has
limited proved reserves of oil and natural gas and uses its large coal deposits to
meet most of its energy needs, particularly in the electricity sector. Most of the
oil consumed in the country, used mainly in the transportation sector, is imported
from Middle East and West African producers in the Organization of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC) and is locally refined. South Africa also has a sophisti
-
cated synthetic fuels industry, which accounts for nearly all of the country’s domes
-
tically produced petroleum as crude oil production is very small.
86
Meanwhile, the amount of energy produced is inadequate, both in total and in
terms of distribution: an estimated 30 percent of South Africans live in electricity pover-
ty, either remaining unable to afford electricity or having very limited access to the grid.
In 2010 the government presented the IRP (Integrated Resource Plan), through which
it proposed to close the energy gap by concentrating on nuclear energy production
87
.
83
Su-yuan Sun / Dilemmas and Obstacles: Multilateral Energy Cooperation Among BRICS Coun
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tries URL: www.saias.ecnu.edu.cn/idown4875.html
84
Ibid.
85
India URL: http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis.cfm?iso=IND
86
South Africa URL: http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis.cfm?iso=ZAF
87
Su-yuan Sun / Dilemmas and Obstacles: Multilateral Energy Cooperation Among BRICS Coun
-
tries URL: www.saias.ecnu.edu.cn/idown4875.html