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pressure or stress, but evidence is lacking for applications not related to 
relaxation (Lecture 19).

microwaving

:

Microwave ovens use microwave frequency electromagnetic 

¿

 elds to heat water molecules inside food. This has the same overall effect 

on food as other forms of cooking. Using microwave-safe plastic containers 
does not release cancer-causing toxins, although not all plastic is safe to 
microwave (some are too thin and might melt; Lecture 16). Microwave 
ovens are shielded, but to minimize potential risk do not stand directly in 
front of microwaves for extended periods. Liquids may become superheated 
in a microwave causing rapid boiling and pose a burn risk (Lecture 18). 

migraines:

 Migraines are a chronic neurological disorder characterized by 

recurrent headaches, often associated with nausea and sensitivity to bright 
lights and noise (Lecture 2). Many migraine sufferers require medications 
to prevent and treat headaches. Several nutritional supplements, such as 
Vitamin B2 and magnesium, may aid in prevention (Lecture 3).

minerals

: Minerals are required, often in trace amounts, for normal health. 

Plants require minerals also, and humans derive much of their minerals from 
plants in the diet. Reports of mineral depletion in soil are often misinterpreted. 
Soil is tested and minerals are added during farming, and mineral content in 
food is generally adequate (Lecture 3). 

See also

 vitamins.

minimally conscious state (MCS)

: MCS is a type of coma characterized by 

severe decrease in consciousness with only minimal signs of any interaction 
with the environment. MCS is the result of severe brain injury and has a very 
poor prognosis but slightly better than persistent vegetative state (Lecture 
19). 

See also

coma

 and 

persistent vegetative state

.

morbidity

: The term morbidity refers to disease, injury, illness and other 

biological adverse conditions, events, and effects. The term “mortality” 
speci

¿

 cally refers to death, and therefore “morbidity” is often used in 

medicine to refer to all diseases and adverse consequences short of death. 

natural

: The term “natural” refers to substances that occur in nature, but in 

terms of food and products the de

¿

 nition is often vaguely applied and not 

104

Glossary

carefully regulated. “Natural” is used more as a marketing term than for any 
meaningful scienti

¿

 c de

¿

 nition (Lecture 5).

neti pot

:

A container used to 

À

 ush the sinuses with warm water or saline 

(salt water). While use may improve an acute sinus infection by helping to 
remove mucous, there is no evidence for bene

¿

 t from routine preventive use, 

and in fact frequent use may lead to sinus infections. 

organic foods

: The term “organic” refers to a collection of farming practices 

that avoids the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides and the use of other 
techniques such as irradiation and genetic modi

¿

 cation.  The  regulation 

of the organic label refers to the process of farming and production, and 
does not necessarily say anything about the 

¿

 nal product. Proponents 

argue that organic farming methods are more sustainable and better for the 
environment, while others argue that sustainable farming methods should be 
supported whether or not they meet the de

¿

 nition of “organic.” Some may 

prefer organic produce because they wish to support local farms, although 
much organic farming is conducted by large agricultural companies as 
well. Claims for nutritional or health bene

¿

 ts of organic produce remain 

somewhat controversial. After 50 years of research there is no evidence of 
a speci

¿

 c health bene

¿

 t to consuming organic food. Organic produce does 

contain fewer synthetic pesticides, but the health implications of this are 
unclear as pesticide levels are generally low (and can be reduced further by 
thorough washing) and organic farming often uses nonsynthetic pesticides. 
(

See also

hormones

.) There are only slight nutritional differences in organic 

versus conventional produce, with unclear impact on nutrition and health. An 
additional concern for organic meat, eggs, and dairy is the humane treatment 
of the animals in question (Lecture 3).

persistent vegetative state (PVS)

:

A type of coma de

¿

 ned by a complete 

lack of any interaction with the environment. People in a PVS can have 
sleep-wake cycles, and display eye movement, facial grimacing, and other 
movements but have no discernable conscious awareness. PVS is usually the 
result of severe permanent injury to the brain (Lecture 20). 

See also

coma 

and 

minimally conscious state

. 

105

pharmacognasy

: The study and development of medicinals from natural 

substances, such as plants and animals products. This has been and remains 
an important part of modern drug development (Lecture 14).

placebo effect

: There are many types of placebo effects which cause the 

impression or illusion of a health bene

¿

 t from an inactive intervention. These 

effects include psychological effects, nonspeci

¿

 c  bene

¿

 ts surrounding the 

ritual and attention of treatment, biases of observation, and statistical effects 
(like regression to the mean; Lecture 21). 

prebiotics

: Prebiotics are foods that contain nondigestible components that 

are meant to be food for intestinal bacteria in order to support the intestinal 
ecosystem. While theoretically plausible, there is currently no evidence to 
support speci

¿

 c health bene

¿

 ts (Lecture 6).

pregnancy, conception

:

Conception is the result of the union of male and 

female gametes. There are many myths and beliefs surrounding this event—
most involving methods of preventing, ensuring, or controlling conception 
so as to determine gender (Lecture 22). 

pregnancy, determining gender

: The two scienti

¿

 cally established methods 

of determining the gender of a child prior to birth are through examination 
of the anatomy by ultrasound or examination of the genetics through 
amniocentesis (Lecture 22). 

pregnancy, labor

: Having a safe and healthy pregnancy and delivery is 

important, but many myths as to how to achieve this may cause unnecessary 
fear. It is best to listen to expert advice. For example, it is safe to sleep on 
one’s back while pregnant. Raising arms will not twist the umbilical cord; 
moderate exercise is okay; bumpy roads will not induce labor; and it is safe 
to use microwave ovens (though don’t stand close for long periods while 
they’re operating; Lecture 22).

prepared foods

: In terms of nutritional content, food choice is overall more 

important than food preparation. Excessive cooking can reduce the nutritional 
content of food, but normal cooking will have a negligible effect. Fresh fruits 
and vegetables will often have the most nutrients, but frozen may in fact be 

106

Glossary

better as frozen produce is often picked at peak ripeness, while canned has 
slightly less (Lecture 3). 

probiotics

: Probiotics are products that contain live bacteria, intended to 

improve the helpful bacterial 

À

 ora of the body, mainly in the intestines. 

Existing products, however, have not been shown to signi

¿

 cantly alter the 

complex bacteria ecosystem of the body, with either short-term or long-term 
use (Lecture 6). 

raw foods

: Raw foods refers to food that has not been cooked or treated in 

a way that would alter its composition. Despite claims, raw foods are not 
nutritionally superior to cooked foods. Normal cooking only has a minor 
effect on some nutrients, while actually making some foods more digestible 
and therefore more nutritious. Raw milk has no more nutritional value than 
pasteurized and carries an increased risk of contamination and infection 
(Lecture 5). 

sneezing

: A sneeze is an involuntary re

À

 ex that results in the explosive 

expulsion of air from the lugs through the nose and mouth. It is possible to 
voluntarily suppress a sneeze. Despite common belief, this is not dangerous. 
However violent sneezing itself does have some rare risks, including muscle 
strain, arterial dissection, and venous thrombosis (Lecture 1). 

sweating

: Sweating is the secretion of water through sweat glands in the 

skin. Its primary function is to cool the body through evaporation. If one 
becomes dehydrated the ability to sweat will be diminished, which can lead 
to overheating (Lecture 2). 

swimming

: Swimming is a physical exercise like any other. There is no 

special reason to wait an hour after eating before swimming, although any 
physical exertion on a full stomach may be uncomfortable (Lecture 1). 

syndrome

: A syndrome is a constellation of symptoms and signs that tend 

to occur together and display a characteristic natural history, prognosis, and 
response to treatment. Syndromes can be described and named even in the 
absence of knowledge of their underlying cause, and in fact may have many 
possible underlying causes (Lecture 13). 

107

teething

: Teething is the process of infant teeth emerging through the gums. 

Infants may often become fussy from the discomfort. However, there is no 
evidence to support an association between teething and diarrhea, cough, or 
high fever (Lecture 24).

turkey

: Turkey meat is a source of protein, including the amino acid 

L-tryptophan. It is a popular belief that tryptophan contributes to the 
sleepiness attributed to a large turkey meal, however tryptophan from turkey 
alone does not cause sleepiness (Lecture 24).

urine therapy

: Urine therapy (or urotherapy) is the practice, dating back 

to many ancient cultures, of drinking one’s own urine as a remedy or 
health tonic. It is based on the false belief that vital nutrients or therapeutic 
proteins are expelled in the urine and drinking them can cure many diseases 
or ailments. However, this is superstition and not science. Urine is waste 
and is used to remove toxins and waste from the body as well as to regulate 
electrolytes and hydration (Lecture 23). 

vaccination

:

Vaccination is the medical intervention of stimulating the 

immune system with a component of an infectious agent in order to provoke 
long term immunity to the infection. Vaccines use either live attenuated (not 
harmful) versions of bacteria or viruses, or killed organisms, or sometimes 
just proteins from the organisms. In this way vaccines strengthen the immune 
system and allow it to mount a much more vigorous response when the 
recipient is exposed to the infecting agent the next time (Lectures 10 and 11). 

See also

À

 u vaccine 

and

 autism.

vitalism

: Vitalism is an ancient belief, common in almost every culture, that 

living things are animated by a life energy. In Chinese culture the vitalistic 
force is referred to as chi (or qi), in India it is called prana, while in the West 
it was referred to as spiritus and in modern manifestations it has been called 
“innate” (by chiropractors) and the “human energy 

¿

 eld” (by practitioners 

of therapeutic touch). The vitalistic force was used to explain aspects of 
biology that were not yet understood scienti

¿

 cally, but by the middle of the 

19

th

 century the notion of a vital force was abandoned by science, essentially 

because there was nothing left for it to do (biological processes had been 
adequately explained scienti

¿

 cally to make it super

À

 uous). Further, there is