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ingly sympathetic portrayal of the lumbering monster brought to life by an ambitious scientist. Based on 19th-century novels, these two works (themselves remakes of silent films) became classics that directors have continued to remake, with numerous variations.

Notes:

1.the way of shooting films – способ съемки фильма;

2.initial impediments – первоначальные препятствия;

3.dolly – «долли», операторская тележка, платформа;

4.to gain new energy – получать новую энергию.

DEVELOPMENTS IN EUROPE

Inventors in Europe also developed recorded sound systems during the 1920s. In 1930 an international conference of patent holders came to general agreement so that legal disputes would not hinder the transformation to sound. The principal European film industries, along with Hollywood, shifted over to sound production in the late 1920s.

British film hoped to gain from its strong theatrical tradition with the coming of sound. Producer-director Alexander Korda made an international impact with «The Private Life of Henry VIII» (1933). Alfred Hitchcock directed popular thrillers and espionage films such as «The 39 Steps» (1935). During the 1930s Britain also developed a significant government-sponsored documentary film practice under the leadership of John Grierson. Directors Michael Powell, David Lean, and Carol Reed made important narrative films in the World War II period (1939–1945), while war-related documentaries were produced by filmmakers such as Humphrey Jennings.

A distinctive style of filmmaking called poetic realism emerged in France during the 1930s. This stressed the aesthetic dimension beyond the realities of everyday life, in which ordinary people struggled with fate and social circumstances. The most versatile and prolific French director of the era was Jean Renoir, whose best-known works from the period are «Grand Illusion» (1937) and «Rules of the Game» (1939).

In Germany, Fritz Lang and G. W. Pabst, leading directors of the silent period, made innovative early sound films – Lang with «M» (1931) and Pabst with «Comradeship» (1931). But the art film movement of the 1920s came to an end when the National Socialist (Nazi) party led by Adolf Hitler seized

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power in 1933. Many filmmakers fled Germany out of opposition to the Nazis or from fear of persecution. After the Nazis took control of the film industry, they began making propaganda films. Actor and director Leni Riefenstahl made films that glorified the Nazi party. But soon Nazi propagandists decided that their ideology could be more effectively conveyed in entertainment form, and they produced many comedies and dramas.

The coming of sound also coincided with political changes in the USSR that ended artistic experimentation in cinema. The government put forth a new doctrine called socialist realism that required simplified styles and stories that served as propaganda vehicles for government policies. Such filmmakers as Sergey Eisenstein were unable to release completed films. Though the atmosphere of repression continued, growing tensions between the USSR and Nazi Germany gave Eisenstein the chance to make «Alexander Nevsky» (1938), a historical epic set in the 13th century in which Russians repel an invasion by German knights.

Notes:

1.a distinctive style – особенный (характерный, необычный) стиль;

2.to struggle with fate and social circumstances – бороться с судьбой и социальными обстоятельствами;

3.to require simplified styles – требовать упрощенные стили.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLOR FILMS

From the early days of cinema, the films we think of as silent and black- and-white were screened not only with live musical accompaniment but also in many cases in color. This was initially accomplished by laboriously handtinting individual frames. Later, tinting machines were developed, which involved bathing black-and-white positive film in a dye, producing a single overall color effect for a sequence. As early as 1908 a process called Kinemacolor used green and red filters both in photographing and in projecting black- and-white film to create an effective appearance of natural color.

In the 1920s efforts turned to recording color on the film negative so that filters or special projection equipment would not be needed. The process, known as Technicolor, at first utilized two color negatives that were pasted together in a positive print. Later, a dye transfer system enabled the two negatives to be printed as a single positive film. The first feature-length all-

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Technicolor film appeared in 1922. Two-color Technicolor remained in use until around 1930, often for special sequences within black-and-white films. During the 1930s a further improvement, three-color Technicolor, was first utilized by Walt Disney in animated films; «Becky Sharp» (1935), directed by Rouben Mamoulian of the United States, was the first feature-length film to use this process.

Color was used in only a minority of films until the 1950s, when Hollywood turned more frequently to color in an effort to differentiate movies from the increasingly popular medium of television, then available only in black-and-white. Further simplification and improvements in color technology meant that color movies had become the standard and black-and-white the exception by the 1960s in the United States, and then in most other countries.

Notes:

1.laboriously hand-tinting individual frames – утомительное окрашива-

ние вручную отдельных кадров;

2.Technicolor – 1) «Техниколор» (система цветного кино; фирменное название); 2) цветное кино.

FILMS AFTER WORLD WAR II

Although American movies reached the peak of their popularity in the United States in 1946, changed circumstances soon brought difficulties that were to shape the next quarter century of motion-picture history. The advent of television caused the greatest disruption. The rapid spread of home television sets in the 1950s was accompanied by a steady decline in moviegoing. In an effort to combat television’s appeal, movie companies adopted new technologies – wide-screen and three-dimensional processes – that offered a more spectacular screen image. Three-dimensionality, or 3-D, involved the recording of multiple images through filters that direct light and required viewers to wear specially designed spectacles to observe the three-dimensional effects. Hollywood studios, featuring effects that «come off the screen right at you», released three dozen 3-D films in 1953 and 1954. But the popularity of this gimmick soon waned, and it was quickly dropped.

Although the U. S. film industry remained dominant in the world arena, Hollywood’s difficulties occurred as other film cultures began to recover from World War II and make their own international impact through innovations in

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artistry and subject matter. What follows is a survey of the most important of these developments in the era after 1945.

Notes:

1.to reach the peak of one’s popularity – достичь пика популярности;

2.gimmick – хитроумное приспособление;

3.to wane – уменьшаться, идти на убыль;

4.to drop – прекращаться, кончаться.

NEOREALISM AND THE NEW WAVE

The first important postwar film movement came from Italy, and was called neorealism. The term was originally coined to link trends in Italian filmmaking with French poetic realism of the 1930s. The leading directors of neorealism were Roberto Rossellini and Vittorio De Sica. These directors shot their films on location – in city streets and other authentic settings, rather than on studio lots – and they used postsynchronized sound (dubbing of dialogue in the studio after filming) to enable a more fluid camera movement amid realistic settings.

Director Luchino Visconti created a film about a Sicilian fishing village «The Earth Trembles» (1948), using actual fishermen and their families instead of actors. Director Federico Fellini got his start in the neorealist movement as a scriptwriter on «Rome, Open City», but as a director in the 1950s and later his works emphasized comedy and a spiritual dimension.

During the 1950s another new movement took form in France under the guidance of young film critics. These critics complained of what they saw as the highly literary style of French films, which (in their view) regarded the scriptwriter as more important than the director. They wrote articles praising Hollywood directors such as Alfred Hitchcock as the true «authors» of their films because they controlled the visual image, and they proclaimed an «author policy». Their emphasis on the director has had a lasting influence on the writing of film history and criticism.

In the late 1950s a number of these critics directed their first feature films, which reflected their theories and became known as the French «New Wave». The leading figures included Jean-Luc Godard with his first feature «Breathless» (1961). Godard’s film challenged narrative conventions by utilizing jump cuts, in which gaps in time break the continuity of a scene. Such innovations signaled a desire among new wave filmmakers to reconceptualize

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cinema, while at the same time they paid homage to Hollywood and were deeply immersed in popular culture.

The French new wave revitalized the role of France as a leader in world cinema culture, and strengthened the link between cinema’s aspirations to artistry and its popular appeal. Coming just before the turbulent decade of the 1960s, it inspired young filmmakers everywhere, and «new waves» followed in such countries as Czechoslovakia, Japan, and Brazil.

Notes:

1.New Wave – «Новая волна» – движение в искусстве, которое сознательно ломало традиционные представления, взгляды; в кинопроизводстве это движение зародилось во Франции в 1960-х гг., заключалось в том, что режиссеры отказывались от традиционной техники монтажа;

2.Neorealism – «Неореализм» – движение, которое намеренно описывало бедность общества, зародилось в послевоенной Италии;

3.to coin – выдумывать, замышлять;

4.to link trends – соединять направления;

5.authentic – аутентичный, настоящий, подлинный;

6.under the guidance of young film critics – под руководством молодых кинокритиков.

THE ACHIEVEMENTS IN NEW CINEMA

OF OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

In addition to Italian neorealism and the French New Wave, the 1950s were marked by the emergence of an international art cinema, emphasizing the achievements of individual filmmakers. Among the leading figures of the international movement was Swedish director Ingmar Bergman. Bergman’s film career, which began in 1946, covers half a century, with his most admired and influential work produced in the 1950s.

Bergman’s filmmaking vision was strikingly displayed in two films released in 1957, «The Seventh Seal» and «Wild Strawberries». These films concern large philosophical and religious themes: God’s presence in the world, life’s absurdities, and the loneliness and coldness of death. «The Seventh Seal» is set in the Middle Ages and features a symbolic chess match between a knight and a figure representing death. «Wild Strawberries» follows

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an elderly professor of medicine as he reflects on and dreams about his past life, presented in flashbacks, while traveling to receive an honorary degree.

Another prominent figure of the international art cinema was the Spaniard Luis Buñuel, though his name was not new on the world stage. Buñuel had become famous in avant-garde circles with «The Golden Age» (1930). In the 1930s he directed his only nonfiction film, a stinging report on an impoverished region of Spain, «Land Without Bread» (produced 1932, released 1937).

Going into exile during the Spanish Civil War of the mid-1930s, Buñuel spent almost a decade in the United States without making a film before resuming his career in Mexico in 1946. His Mexican film «The Young and the Damned» (1950) won festival prizes and returned him to international prominence. This was a film about impoverished street youths, yet Buñuel insisted it was not a work of realism, and it utilized dreams, visions, and representations of states of consciousness to augment his psychological portrait of the characters.

Germany was divided after World War II into a Soviet zone of occupation (which became the German Democratic Republic, or East Germany) and an allied zone (which became the Federal Republic of Germany, or West Germany). Each followed separate filmmaking policies until the country was reunited in 1990. For some years after the war neither cinema made much of an impression on the international scene. But this began to change in the 1960s in West Germany when a group of young filmmakers sought to create New German Cinema, akin to The New Waves.

In the British tradition of nonfiction filmmaking, a Free Cinema movement developed in the 1950s that revived documentaries about working-class life. British cinema also offered a rich variety of alternative works, including feminist films by directors such as Sally Potter, and films representing Britain’s black and gay cultures.

State control of filmmaking remained strong in the Soviet Union in the post-World War II years and continued until the breakup of the USSR in 1991. For several decades after 1945 few Soviet films circulated in Europe and the United States. The most famous was «The Cranes are Flying» (1957), a film about injustices and futility World War II directed by Mikhail Kalatozov.

In the late 1950s and 1960s, during a period of greater creative freedom in Soviet cultural life, several filmmakers emerged whose startling works were

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hailed as major achievements in world cinema. Sergei Paradzhanov, from the Soviet republic of Georgia, made «Teni zabytykh predkov» (Shadows of Our Forgotten Ancestors, 1964), a stylistic tour de force that was remarkable in its depiction of characters’ emotional states. Andrei Tarkovsky directed «Andrey Rublyov» (1966), «Solaris» (1972), and other mystical, highly symbolic works.

Poland was the first to make its mark internationally, with the films of Andrzej Wajda, including «A Generation» (1954) and «Ashes and Diamonds» (1958). The last film was a visual triumph of deep-focus and long-take cinematography.

Notes:

1.to go into exile – ехать в ссылку;

2.to offer a rich variety of alternative works – предлагать (представлять)

богатое разнообразие альтернативных фильмов;

3.startling works – поразительные (потрясающие, удивительные) работы;

4.to be hailed – быть названным;

5.a film about injustices and futility – фильм о несправедливости и бесполезности.

NON-EUROPEAN CINEMA

International recognition for the film cultures of Japan and India came after 1945, beginning with acclaim for individual filmmakers. Veteran Japanese directors Mizoguchi Kenji and Ozu Yasujiro, along with the younger filmmaker Akira Kurosawa, were acknowledged in the 1950s as leading stylists of the film medium. Ozu made intricate, intimate films of domestic life, such as «Tokyo Story» (1953). Kurosawa, still active in the 1990s, became known for such epic period films (films set in the past) as «Rashomon» (1950) and «The Seven Samurai» (1954). In the 1960s Japan had its own «new wave» with the films of Ōshima Nagisa, Imamura Shohei, and Shinoda Masahiro.

Film in India had developed during the 1930s as a popular entertainment dominated by musicals. In a country of more than a dozen major languages, film music reached across linguistic barriers. Performers who sang gained extraordinary celebrity from recordings and radio broadcasts of film music. Perhaps the first Indian filmmaker to be appreciated internationally

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as a cinema stylist was Satyajit Ray, whose «Apu trilogy» – «Song of the Little Road» (1955), «The Unvanquished» (1956), and «The World of Apu» (1959) – adapted a well-known Bengali novel in a neorealist style. Mrinal Sen became known as a director of films on political topics. Popular Indian cinema continued its tradition of music and melodrama.

Films also emerged from Chinese cultures during the 1980s. A new generation of directors, including Chen Kaige, Zhang Yimou, and Tian Zhuangzhuang, appeared in the Peoples’ Republic of China. Breaking with a tradition of studio filmmaking, they went to rural China to make films of daily life. Hong Kong, with a reputation for commercial martial arts movies, also produced filmmakers such as Stanley Kwan, who made popular melodramas with sensational narratives and incisive social commentary.

Although the English-speaking nations of Australia and New Zealand released films in the early 1900s, they had difficulty establishing their own film cultures because American and British films dominated their theaters. A resurgence of the film industry began in Australia during the 1970s with increased government financing for film projects and better training for filmmakers. This policy reaped success both in the volume of films produced and in the international recognition such directors as Peter Weir, for «Picnic at Hanging Rock» (1975) and «The Last Wave» (1977); Gillian Armstrong, for «My Brilliant Career» (1979); and some others.

After such great success all the Australian filmmakers named above accepted offers to direct in Hollywood and have remained for the most part in the United States. The same holds true for actors such as Mel Gibson. As the star of the Australian films «Mad Max» (1979) and «Mad Max 2» (1981), Gibson became a familiar figure in Hollywood action films.

New Zealand director Jane Campion made her name in Australia with films such as «Sweetie» (1989) and the international hit «The Piano» (1993). Director Lee Tamahori made an impressive debut with «Once Were Warriors» (1994), about city life today among the Maori natives of New Zealand. Tamahori then skipped Australia and went directly to Hollywood.

Although Egypt and a few other Arab and African countries had produced films for decades, filmmaking generally began to develop on the continent of Africa only after the 1960s, in the period of nation-building.

In Africa south of the Sahara, the pioneering filmmaker was Ousmane Sembène of Senegal, a novelist turned film director. Film historians consider

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