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Task 1

Pros and Cons of Space Exploration

Space exploration invokes the interest of many. The possibility of finding life in extraterrestrial space leaves us mystified. While some believe that space travel and research in the field has advantages, there are others who criticize the field for having no real benefit for mankind. What are the pros and cons of space exploration? Read on to find out.

▸ Space exploration can help us gain knowledge of other planets, stars, and celestial bodies. It has the potential to resolve mysteries of the outer space. Somewhere in space, we may find life. We may discover completely different life forms on another planet that supports life. Or we might find a planet that can sustain life. We may even find new human-like species, or aliens who are more developed than us. Exploring space may lead us to the discovery of an all-new world.

▸ Space research has the potential to bring changes to our living by introducing developments in science and opening doors to new information. In fact, space exploration has already benefited us in many ways. Satellites help locate minerals and fossil fuels. We have been able to harness solar energy due to our knowledge of the sun. Scientists are trying to understand if the process by which heat and light energy is produced by the sun, can be replicated on Earth to generate energy for human use. Through space exploration, we may be able to find new energy sources. This field paves the path for the study of cosmic radiations and their effects and uses.

▸ Satellites help us in forecasting weather and in predicting natural calamities. Satellite communication, TV, radio, and GPS are among the other advantages of space exploration.

▸ Our understanding of the Earth has increased due to space exploration. Scientists are able to study the Earth's atmosphere from space and understand the changes in climate and their effects on the life on Earth. A pro of space travel is that it is possible to observe our planet from a distance. Satellites help the scientists assess how well and for how long our planet will be able to sustain life. Changes in the environment, and issues like global warming and ozone depletion can be studied. Space exploration has helped answer questions like how the Earth was formed or where organic materials come from.

▸ By exploring space, scientists can now know when an asteroid is going to pass close to the Earth's orbit or whether there are chances of it striking our planet and the harm it may cause. Asteroids that may threaten life on Earth can be mapped, thanks to space research. And scientists have even been able to devise ways to prevent the impact of asteroids by diverting near-Earth objects away from Earth.

▸ An important benefit of space exploration is that this field creates jobs. Organizations like NASA have thousands of employees. Space programs create employment. Space exploration involves both astronomy and space technology. The fields create work opportunities for not just astronauts, but even scientists and engineers who work on unmanned spacecraft, astronomers who study objects in space, and professionals who work in designing and testing space equipment.

▸ Space exploration whets the human appetite for adventure. Those willing to risk life for that 'out of the world' experience, quite literally so, obtain the relevant education and work with a space research organization. They participate in space studies and some of them even have the opportunity to travel to space. Space exploration satisfies the human desire of adventure and accomplishment.

▸ Space research needs the use of high-end technology, including specialized communication devices, small computers, robots, and other space equipment. Thus space exploration has the potential to drive innovation.

▸ Space exploration programs can help achieve cooperation between countries. Different nations come together in the pursuit of a common goal. When space research agencies come together, resources and expenses are shared and the research costs do not burden just one country. Space studies bring researchers from different parts of the world together, thus achieving a sharing of knowledge and co-operative effort.

Cons

▸ One of the most important cons of space exploration is the money spent on research. Space travel is very costly. The research undertaken needs the implementation of advanced technology, further adding to the costs incurred. Due to time that needs to be invested, and that when compared to the outcome, the research does not prove to be cost-effective. The cost of education for this field is also very high. The money that is spent on space exploration can rather be spent to reduce poverty in the underdeveloped countries. The national wealth can be channelized towards the betterment of the downtrodden lot of society. A huge amount of money is required for traveling to space. Critics of space exploration argue that it is not right to spend money on something like space research when several people on the planet are unable to meet even their basic needs.

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▸ Manned missions to space pose a great risk on the astronauts who travel to space. Thus, space exploration risks human life. The stay in a spacecraft is not easy and the conditions are harsh, which makes the survival during space travel a challenge. Effects of radiation on the body and bone loss resulting from microgravity are some of the health risks during space travel. Of course, unmanned missions eliminate these dangers, but as robots have to be employed, additional technology costs need to be incurred.

▸ We always associate space research with the discovery of life or precious materials that could be of our use. But exploring space may land us in trouble. In space, we may find something that is lethal to the life on Earth. We may discover something that is harmful to the living beings on our planet. There is a possibility of finding dangerous organisms.

▸ What we leave behind in space, known as space junk or space debris, leads to space pollution. The debris include coolant droplets, dust, non-functional spacecraft, old satellites, and pieces of any man-made objects that continue to orbit the Earth.

▸ Uniting the world may be cited as an advantage of space exploration. However, it may lead to disputes within nations. Satellites could be used by one country to spy over another. Among the cons of space travel is that it may be conducted with the wrong intentions. This may lead to strained relations between countries as also an unhealthy competition.

Space exploration can mean a major leap for mankind. However, it is also criticized for not having achieved any major scientific breakthroughs. Public interest can serve as the determinant in judging the suitability of space exploration. It may not be wise to make such huge expenses on space exploration if other human needs are being ignored or left unfulfilled. But the hope to find extraterrestrial life thrives on space exploration.

Task 2

Environmental Problems

Our environment is constantly changing. There is no denying that. However, as our environment changes, so does the need to become increasingly aware of the problems that surround it. With a massive influx of natural disasters, warming and cooling periods, different types of weather patterns and much more, people need to be aware of what types of environmental problems our planet is facing.

Global warming has become an undisputed fact about our current livelihoods; our planet is warming up and we are definitely part of the problem. However, this isn’t the only environmental problem that we should be concerned about. All across the world, people are facing a wealth of new and challenging environmental problems every day. Some of them are small and only affect a few ecosystems, but others are drastically changing the landscape of what we already know.

Our planet is poised at the brink of a severe environmental crisis. Current environmental problems make us vulnerable to disasters and tragedies, now and in the future. We are in a state of planetary emergency, with environmental problems piling up high around us. Unless we address the various issues prudently and seriously we are surely doomed for disaster. Current environmental problems require urgent attention.

15 Major Current Environmental Problems

1. Pollution: Pollution of air, water and soil require millions of years to recoup. Industry and motor vehicle exhaust are the number one pollutants. Heavy metals, nitrates and plastic are toxins responsible for pollution. While water pollution is caused by oil spill, acid rain, urban runoff; air pollution is caused by various gases and toxins released by industries and factories and combustion of fossil fuels; soil pollution is majorly caused by industrial waste that deprives soil from essential nutrients.

2. Global Warming: Climate changes like global warming is the result of human practices like emission of Greenhouse gases. Global warming leads to rising temperatures of the oceans and the earth’ surface causing melting of polar ice caps, rise in sea levels and also unnatural patterns of precipitation such as flash floods, excessive snow or desertification.

3. Overpopulation: The population of the planet is reaching unsustainable levels as it faces shortage of resources like water, fuel and food. Population explosion in less developed and developing countries is straining the already scarce resources. Intensive agriculture practiced to produce food damages the environment through use of chemical fertilizer, pesticides and insecticides. Overpopulation is one of the crucial current environmental problem.

4. Natural Resource Depletion: Natural resource depletion is another crucial current environmental problems. Fossil fuel consumption results in emission of Greenhouse gases, which is responsible for global warming and climate change. Globally, people are taking efforts to shift to renewable sources of energy like solar, wind, biogas and geothermal energy. The cost of installing the infrastructure and maintaining these sources has plummeted in the recent years.

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5. Waste Disposal: The over consumption of resources and creation of plastics are creating a global crisis of waste disposal. Developed countries are notorious for producing an excessive amount of waste or garbage and dumping their waste in the oceans and, less developed countries. Nuclear waste disposal has tremendous health hazards associated with it. Plastic, fast food, packaging and cheap electronic wastes threaten the well being of humans. Waste disposal is one of urgent current environmental problem.

6. Climate Change: Climate change is yet another environmental problem that has surfaced in last couple of decades. It occurs due to rise in global warming which occurs due to increase in temperature of atmosphere by burning of fossil fuels and release of harmful gases by industries. Climate change has various harmful effects but not limited to melting of polar ice, change in seasons, occurrence of new diseases, frequent occurrence of floods and change in overall weather scenario.

7. Loss of Biodiversity: Human activity is leading to the extinction of species and habitats and and loss of bio-diversity. Eco systems, which took millions of years to perfect, are in danger when any species population is decimating. Balance of natural processes like pollination is crucial to the survival of the eco-system and human activity threatens the same. Another example is the destruction of coral reefs in the various oceans, which support the rich marine life.

8. Deforestation: Our forests are natural sinks of carbon dioxide and produce fresh oxygen as well as helps in regulating temperature and rainfall. At present forests cover 30% of the land but every year tree cover is lost amounting to the country of Panama due to growing population demand for more food, shelter and cloth. Deforestation simply means clearing of green cover and make that land available for residential, industrial or commercial purpose.

9. Ocean Acidification: It is a direct impact of excessive production of CO2. 25% of CO2 produced by humans. The ocean acidity has increased by the last 250 years but by 2100, it may shoot up by 150%. The main impact is on shellfish and plankton in the same way as human osteoporosis.

10. Ozone Layer Depletion: The ozone layer is an invisible layer of protection around the planet that protects us from the sun’s harmful rays. Depletion of the crucial Ozone layer of the atmosphere is attributed to pollution caused by Chlorine and Bromide found in Chloro-floro carbons (CFC’s). Once these toxic gases reach the upper atmosphere, they cause a hole in the ozone layer, the biggest of which is above the Antarctic. The CFC’s are banned in many industries and consumer products. Ozone layer is valuable because it prevents harmful UV radiation from reaching the earth. This is one of the most important current environmental problem.

11. Acid Rain: Acid rain occurs due to the presence of certain pollutants in the atmosphere. Acid rain can be caused due to combustion of fossil fuels or erupting volcanoes or rotting vegetation which release sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. Acid rain is a known  environmental problem that can have serious effect on human health, wildlife and aquatic species.

12. Water Pollution: Clean drinking water is becoming a rare commodity. Water is becoming an economic and political issue as the human population fights for this resource. One of the options suggested is using the process of desalinization. Industrial development is filling our rivers seas and oceans with toxic pollutants which are a major threat to human health.

13. Urban Sprawl: Urban sprawl refers to migration of population from high density urban areas to low density rural areas which results in spreading of city over more and more rural land. Urban sprawl results in land degradation, increased traffic, environmental issues and health issues. The ever growing demand of land displaces natural environment consisting of flora and fauna instead of being replaced.

14: Public Health Issues: The current environmental problems pose a lot of risk to health of humans, and animals. Dirty water is the biggest health risk of the world and poses threat to the quality of life and public health. Run-off to rivers carries along toxins, chemicals and disease carrying organisms. Pollutants cause respiratory disease like Asthma and cardiac-vascular problems. High temperatures encourage the spread of infectious diseases like Dengue.

15. Genetic Engineering: Genetic modification of food using biotechnology is called genetic engineering. Genetic modification of food results in increased toxins and diseases as genes from an allergic plant can transfer to target plant. Genetically modified crops can cause serious environmental problems as an engineered gene may prove toxic to wildlife. Another drawback is that increased use of toxins to make insect resistant plant can cause resultant organisms to become resistant to antibiotics.

The need for change in our daily lives and the movements of our government is growing. Because so many different factors come into play; voting, governmental issues, the desire to stick to routine, many people don’t consider that what they do will affect future generations. If humans continue moving forward in such a harmful way towards the future, then there will be no future to consider. Although it’s true that we cannot physically stop our ozone layer from thinning (and scientists are still having trouble figuring out what is causing it exactly,) there are still so many things we can do to try and put a dent in what we already know. By raising awareness in your local community and within your families about these issues, you can help contribute to a more environmentally conscious and friendly place for you to live.

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Task 3

The glass ceiling effect: What’s holding women back?

In early July 2001, when Musharaf Hai was appointed as chairman and CEO of Unilever Pakistan, the corporate world went ablaze with the news since it was the first time that a woman had been granted such a powerful position.

While her excellent credentials suggested otherwise, many were skeptical about her ability to lead in a field dominated by men, especially considering the intense pressure that a high profile job like this entails. Fortunately, Hai proved herself by not only making Unilever into Pakistan’s largest consumer goods company but also being ranked amongst the 50 most powerful women in business by Fortune magazine (2004). She currently serves as Managing Director of L’oreal Pakistan and a part-time advisor to local economic forums as well.

Taking away from the example of Hai, one can conclude that the last decade has experienced a rising awareness of the value women add to the corporate world, their impact on an organisation and the contribution they make to the economy at large. This realisation has encouraged many local organisations to offer workplace amenities such as day-care centres, improved maternity leave policies and establishing office committees to cater to their female employees while they work. Unfortunately, these measures fail to break through the invisible barrier of gender bias and at times, outright misogyny, i.e. the glass-ceiling that exists in the corporate world and denies women the right to move up the hierarchy. In other words, a glass-ceiling is an informal set of values or attitudes that limit the level to which women or other minorities can ascend in the organization and is a leading cause of female employee turnover in Pakistan.

Despite having a relatively high number of women in the Parliament, as compared to other South Asian countries (19% of Parliamentarians are women), working women in Pakistan still face great obstacles moving up the corporate ladder and are often excluded from the decision-making process for important social, political and economic issues. The fact that Pakistan ranks second last in a list of 135 countries with gender gap (World Economic Forum 2012) suggests that workplace equality is still a farfetched idea in the country and this can have severe repercussions on not just the health and education of ambitious women across the world but also business and society in general.

Reasons for glass-ceiling

According to Waqar Ahsan, a banker by day and trainer/lecturer by night, glass-ceiling is the results of decades of societal and gender norms that hinder female involvement outside the confines of their homes, let alone in an office. “The glass-ceiling occurs because of things like having to travel to work and stay away from their household duties,” suggests Ahsan. “An employee who has other chores to worry about, compared to one who doesn’t, is less likely to remain focused in the office so one can understand why men would be the first choice when assigning positions of influence. Not to mention working with women entails maternity leaves and other considerations as well,” he adds.

Perhaps glass-ceiling can also be attributed to years of male leadership in the corporate world which has created a masculine, patriarchal working environment. “Women on the other hand tend to have a different, much softer leadership style,” explains Ahsan.

Building on Ahsan’s viewpoint, HR Manager Sarah Abid suggests that “the nature of men and women are such that women are much more risk-averse than men when in reality, business is often all about taking risks. A female employee’s caution, although a good thing, can be just what keeps her from a more lucrative job.”

Sabeen Fareed, a Quality Assurance Engineer at a multinational software house has a less holistic view. According to Fareed, women themselves encourage the prevalence of glass-ceiling since they rarely ever stick around in one company long enough to attain a higher position. “Hard work aside, getting to the top takes time. Unfortunately, so many Pakistani women drop out of work for shaadi, bachay or ghardaari etc. How can they progress when they aren’t working at all?” she says.

Additionally, female employees aren’t given the mentorship and assistance by their seniors, who subconsciously overlook their qualifications and abilities simply because they are women.  Therefore, men are more likely to hire people who similar to them, i.e. other men.

Effects of glass-ceiling

Perpetuating a cycle of unfulfilled career expectations among women can spread insecurity and even depression. “It’s only natural that I would feel unappreciated if my hard work was not being paid off,” says Hina Shahid, a full-time investment banker. “It is highly upsetting and de-motivating to feel like you are not worth it and can make you want to resign.”

We must also remember that the level of sexism and chauvinism rampant in Pakistan worsens the economy by adding to under or no employment and poverty.

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Break the glass-ceiling

According to the Pakistan Council of Science and Technology, the current ratio of female contribution to the boardrooms of Pakistan is  just 4.6% and despite improvements over the last decade, Pakistan remains a primarily male-dominated economy. But what can be done to grant women more power? How can the scales be tipped in favour of the career-oriented, focused women who wish to break the mould and make a mark in the world?

Unfortunately, there is no set formula to counter glass-ceiling in the office. It takes exceptional courage for a woman to voice such sensitive issues. Nonetheless, one must take the risk to honour her ambitions and for these enterprising women, we recommend the following:

•  Strive not for equality but being better than the competition. It is crucial to work hard and build a solid case for a promotion: if you are worth the hassle, any organisation should be willing to break its norms for you. And if you are being discriminated against, stay and fight for your rights.

•  Generally, it is easy to gauge an organization’s values and philosophy by its senior management i.e. if the upper tier of employees has few or no women, it could be a bad sign. Hence, it is advisable to glance at the higher ranks before taking up employment at a firm to avoid issues in the future.

•  Remember that companies who do not appreciate workforce diversity are likely to see good people resign frequently and may not change their policies. Hence, seek a career in a company that isn’t too strict or male-dominated. A flexible and caring firm is also likely to be much more conducive to working women in other aspects as well, such as maternity leaves and office timings.

•  Always know and advocate your value. Others will not appreciate your skills and potential unless you do and make your co-workers aware of them. So stop selling yourself short and show off your achievements. You are worth much more than you know!

•  Do not be afraid to pave your own path as this is the path that will lead to success. Do as you please, so long as you believe that it is the right course of action and then stick to it. Trying to fit in hampers one’s uniqueness which in today’s competitive word, is necessary to move ahead. Therefore, be bold and stand away from the crows; tiptoeing around issues and shying away from voicing your opinions will not get you noticed.

•  It is a fact that nobody, men and women alike, can expand their knowledge, gain experience and become sound leaders without taking a few risks in their careers. While this may indeed put your (and your subordinates) career in jeopardy, playing it safe will not boost your leadership skills. Hence, be confident! Put yourself out there and take chances because even if your plan backfires, your self-esteem will not. As Harvard Professor Laurel Thatcher Ulrich puts it, “well behaved women seldom make history.”

Glass-ceiling is a manifestation of the constant struggle working women face in trying to fulfil their aspirations and achieve equal opportunities in our country. This artificial ‘wall’ must be broken if Pakistan is to prosper and keep its female population happy.

Task 4

London. Michaelmas term lately over, and the Lord Chancellor sitting in Lincoln’s Inn Hall. Implacable November weather. As much mud in the streets as if the waters had but newly retired from the face of the earth, and it would not be wonderful to meet a Megalosaurus, forty feet long or so, waddling like an elephantine lizard up Holborn Hill. Smoke lowering down from chimney-pots, making a soft black drizzle, with flakes of soot in it as big as full-grown snowflakes—gone into mourning, one might imagine, for the death of the sun. Dogs, undistinguishable in mire. Horses, scarcely better; splashed to their very blinkers. Foot passengers, jostling one another’s umbrellas in a general infection of ill temper, and losing their foot-hold at streetcorners, where tens of thousands of other foot passengers have been slipping and sliding since the day broke (if this day ever broke), adding new deposits to the crust upon crust of mud, sticking at those points tenaciously to the pavement, and accumulating at compound interest. Fog everywhere. Fog up the river, where it flows among green aits and meadows; fog down the river, where it rolls deified among the tiers of shipping and the waterside pollutions of a great (and dirty) city. Fog on the Essex marshes, fog on the Kentish heights. Fog creeping into the cabooses of collier-brigs; fog lying out on the yards and hovering in the rigging of great ships; fog drooping on the gunwales of barges and small boats. Fog in the eyes and throats of ancient Greenwich pensioners, wheezing by the firesides of their wards; fog in the stem and bowl of the afternoon pipe of the wrathful skipper, down in his close cabin; fog cruelly

pinching the toes and fingers of his shivering little ‘prentice boy on deck. Chance people on the bridges peeping over the parapets into a nether sky of fog, with fog all round them, as if they were up in a balloon and hanging in the misty clouds.Gas looming through the fog in divers places in the streets, much as the sun may, from the spongey fields, be seen to loom by husbandman and ploughboy. Most of the

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