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CHAPTER 3
SOCIAL JUSTICE, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND QUALITY OF LIFE
PILLAR
BRICS should aim to promote the improvement of living conditions through sustainable and
inclusive economic growth and development for its citizens as well as the global citizenry.
Such an agenda seeks to reduce inequalities, enable the creation of employment opportunities,
and eradicate extreme poverty, whilst also unleashing the potential for innovation as a driver of
change. In advancing employment creation programmes, member states are mindful that decent
work and informal entrepreneurial opportunities could play a meaningful role in assisting poor
people to escape the poverty trap.
1 CURRENT SITUATION
While the BRICS countries have managed to sustain considerable economic growth
over the past decades, they continue to face significant challenges in ensuring social
and economic justice at national and regional levels. The presence of high rates of
inequality is a common challenge faced by all BRICS countries.
In pursuit of an agenda to exchange ideas and learn from one another on
how to address extreme poverty, inequality, unemployment and protection of the
vulnerable, the following focus areas are considered:
• social protection safety net programmes for all;
• education;
• health;
• migration, urbanisation and infrastructure; and
• climate change, ecological degradation and food insecurity.
Following from the Charter of the United Nations (UN) and the principle of
social justice, all human beings should benefit from economic and social progress.
Collectively BRICS has an opportunity to set the agenda for ensuring more equitable
and just solutions for all. This is especially important in light of the impending
conclusion of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and negotiations
around the post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
In this regard BRICS member states identify common challenges, note existing
successful cooperation and sharing initiatives, and submit recommendations to
further promote cooperation among them in the above-mentioned focus areas.
BRICS Long-Term Strategy
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1.1 Social protection
Following the adoption of the UN Millennium Declaration, the MDGs cover eight
international development areas that were established after the UN Millennium
Summit in 2000. All 189 UN members (there are 193 currently), including
the BRICS countries, have started this endeavour since then, and at least 23
international organisations have committed to jointly achieve the following
MDGs by 2015:
TABLE 1
Millennium development goals and measurements
Goal 1
Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Measurement
Employment to population ratio, 15 year+, total (%) (modelled ILO estimate)
Goal 2
Achieve universal primary education
Measurement
Primary completion rate, total (% of relevant age group)
Goal 3
Promote gender equality and empower women
Measurement
Proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments (%)
Goal 4
Reduce child mortality
Measurement
Mortality rate, under 5 (per 1000 live births)
Goal 5
Improve maternal health
Measurement
Maternal mortality ratio (modelled estimate, per 100,000 live births)
Goal 6
Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
Measurement
Prevalence of HIV, total (% of population aged 15-49)
Goal 7
Ensure environmental sustainability
Measurement
CO
2
emissions (metric tons per capita)
Goal 8
Develop a global partnership for development
Measurement
Internet users (per 100 people)
Data Source: World Bank, Data for Millennium Development Goals. For each goal, there are multiple measurements; the author
selected one. Please see: <http://goo.gl/XgSakD>.
The achievements made by the BRICS countries are listed in table 2.
TABLE 2
Millennium development goals achievements by BRICS countries
World
Brazil
Russia
India
China
South Africa
1990
2012
1990
2012
1990
2012
1990
2012
1990
2012
1990
2012
Goal 1
62
60
60
65
58
60
58
54
75
68
41
39
Goal 2
81
92
92
#
#
97
64
96
106
#
76
#
Goal 3
13
21
5
9
16
14
5
11
21
21
3
42
Goal 4
90
48
62
14
26
10
126
56
54
14
61
45
Goal 5
380
210
120
69
74
24
560
190
97
32
150
140
(Continues)
Social Justice, Sustainable Development and Quality of Life
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71
World
Brazil
Russia
India
China
South Africa
1990
2012
1990
2012
1990
2012
1990
2012
1990
2012
1990
2012
Goal 6
0.3
0.8
#
#
#
#
0.1
0.3
#
#
0.2
17.9
Goal 7
4
5
1
2
14
12
1
2
2
6
9
9
Goal 8
0
35.6
0
48.6
0
63.8
0
12.6
0
42.3
0
41
Data Source: World Bank, Data for Millennium Development Goals, <http://goo.gl/T8WWCM>.
Obs.: 1. For unit of each goal in this table, please see table 1 for reference.
2. (#) non-available.
The BRICS countries have been firmly committed to achieving the MDGs,
and their performance so far has been reasonably good. However, no member
country has achieved all the goals or exceeded the world average level, which
presents opportunities to deepen their cooperation in this area in the future. This
has imposed the need for a renewed common set of goals for the coming years.
Despite varying degrees of economic development, all five BRICS countries
have enjoyed significant and sustainable growth over the last two decades.
For example, their average annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth of more
than 8 per cent in the 2000s was significantly higher than growth in developed
countries. Notwithstanding, BRICS member states, like many emerging markets
and developing countries (EMDCs), continue to experience high levels of poverty,
inequality and unemployment, which undermine the rights of citizens to social
justice and a better quality of life. Table 3 shows that while all BRICS countries,
except South Africa, increased employment following the 2008 financial crisis, they
experienced a slowdown in employment between 2007 and 2012, with significant
youth unemployment.
TABLE 3
National and youth unemployment trends, BRICS countries (2007, 2011 and 2012)
Country
National unemployment rate
(%)
Youth unemployment rate (%)
Youth to adult unemployment ratio
2007
2011
2012
2007
2011
2012
Brazil
6.1 (2012)
16.8
15.4
--
2.7
2.3
--
China
5.5 (2013)
--
--
7.6
--
--
1.9
India
5.3 (2012/2013)
10.0
1
--
10.7
2.3
--
3.2
Russia
4.1 (2013)
14.4
15.2
14.8
2.4
2.3
2.7
South Africa
25.1 (2012)
46.5
49.8
54.5
2.1
2.0
2.2
Source: IPC-IG (2014). Youth and employment among the BRICS.
Note:
1
2005 data.
In terms of income inequality, Russia, India, China and South Africa experienced
increasing levels of inequality over the last two decades. The OECD report
Economic
Policy Reforms 2010
(see figure 1) shows that South Africa has the worst level of
(Continued)
BRICS Long-Term Strategy
72
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inequality among the BRICS countries. While inequality decreased in Brazil, it is
still notably high. Data for India show the lowest levels of inequality in the group,
and the Russian Federation is in third place.
FIGURE 1
Inequality levels (Gini Coefficient of household income), BRICS, early 1990s and late 2000s
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
Brazil
China
India
Russian Federation
South Africa
Early 1990s
Late 2000s
Source: OECD (2010). Economic Policy reforms 2010: Going for Growth.
However, against the World Bank’s World Development Indicators 2013
(see figure 2), a different picture emerges, with lower levels recorded for Brazil,
the Russian Federation, India and South Africa.
FIGURE 2
Gini coefficient, World Bank World development indicators
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
Brazil
China
India
Russian Federation
South Africa
Gini Coefficient
Source: World Bank (2013). World Development Indicators 2013. Washington, DC, World Bank, <http://data.worldbank.org>.
Social Justice, Sustainable Development and Quality of Life
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73
Data for China, however, reveal a steady inequality level in 2013.
Given these variations, the methodological differences between the OECD and
World Bank reports need to be investigated further. These variations suggest the
need for a common BRICS data collection methodology and collation strategies.
Against the above background and in line with the BRICS agenda to
progressively advance better life for all, BRICS countries have increasingly
adopted social protection as a key response. Adato and Hoddinott (2008) describe
social protection as
“
policies and programmes that protect people against risk and
vulnerability, mitigate the impact of shocks, and support people with chronic
incapacities to secure basic livelihoods”. Social protection can be grouped under
two main categories:
social security
– namely, contributory schemes that protect
income earners and their dependents against temporary or permanent involuntary
loss of income as a result of exposure to contingencies that impair earning capacity
(Kaseke, 2005) – and
social assistance
,
which refers to non-contributory assistance
or benefits provided to poor and needy groups in a population.
The provision of social security in all the BRICS countries is enshrined in
legislation and regulations. In Brazil and South Africa, the Constitutions serve as
the legislative foundation, while in India, the Russian Federation and China social
protection programmes and policies are linked to the promulgation of various
government labour regulations. It is largely due to this enabling legislative and
regulatory framework that virtually all BRICS countries provide workers with
various forms of social security (see table 4).
TABLE 4
Types of social security programmes – BRICS (2013-2014)
Country
Old age,
disability and
survivors
Sickness and maternity
Work injury
Unemployment
Family
allowances
Cash benefits
for both
Cash benefits
plus medical care
Brazil
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Russia
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
India
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
1
China
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
South Africa
Yes
2
2
Yes
Yes
Yes
Source: International Social Security Association (2014). Social Security Programs, Throughout the World. Washington, DC,
Social security Administration.
Notes:
1
Has no programme/information not available.
2
Coverage is provided under other programmes or through social assistance.
With respect to social assistance, Brazil is not only increasingly seen as a
model for BRICS but for developing countries generally. Numerous evaluations
of the Brazilian system have consistently shown that it has resulted in significant