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Ситуационные задачи
Ситуационная задача № 1
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
Public Speaking
One aspect of communication that many students struggle with is oral presentation, or public speaking. A common reason for this is that many people feel nervous when they need to speak in front of an audience, and instructional approaches have been developed that attempt to help learners overcome this apprehension. Many approaches target severe public-speaking anxiety, but they can help less severe cases as well. A meta-analysis by Allen, Hunter, and Donohue (1989) found that the most effective approaches combine a number of elements:
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relaxation techniques to mitigate physiological arousal; -
cognitive reappraisal to reframe the experience; -
public-speaking skill training to help boost confidence.
How to best teach presentation skills themselves has been explored as well. A recent review of the literature by van Ginkel and colleagues (van Ginkel, Gulikers, Biemans, & Mulder, 2015) led to the formulation of seven design principles for developing oral presentation skill. Brieflystated, theyare:
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Establishclearlearningobjectives. -
Make presentations relevant to authentic activities in the discipline. -
Present expert and peer models of successful performance. -
Offerpracticeopportunities. -
Provide explicit and timely feedback.
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Have peers provide formative feedback. -
Help students to self-assess, potentially by using video recordings.
The use of video-recorded practice can help facilitate many of these design principles (see Rider & Keefer, 2006). When students record themselves speaking on a clearly defined topic, watching the video can facilitate self-reflection about their performance, pinpointing areas to improve, building confidence, and practicing how to manage their own nervousness (Murphy & Barry, 2016), particularly when they are provided rubrics to help self-assess (Ritchie, 2016). In addition, combining recordings with constructive feedback from peers or instructors has been found to improve presentation skill (e.g., van Ginkel et al., 2017). Peer feedback appears to be particularly beneficial, as feedback from peers may be easier for a student to comprehend and to integrate into subsequent performance (Herrero, Iborra, &Nogueiras, 2016). In addition, the process of providing feedback allows learners to reflect on aspects that are critical to successful performance by comparing and contrasting successful and unsuccessful attempts and isolating the most critical elements. (See peer review in ‘Writing’, below, for more details.) From a logistical standpoint, peer feedback can likely be provided more readily than feedback from an instructor, meaning that peer feedback can provide for more opportunities to practice presenting as well as more opportunities to receive feedback.
Ситуационнаязадача № 2
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
Numerous skills can help individuals achieve happy and successful lives, but which are the most important? The Pew Research Center recently attempted to answer that question. A 2014 survey presented a representative sample of US adults with ten skills typically taught in school and asked them which are most important to get ahead in life. Commonly emphasized skills of science and math were selected by 58 percent and 79 percent of respondents respectively. Communication skills, however, were selected by a full 90 percent, making communication skills the most common response (Goo, 2015). Many skills, from mathematical reasoning to artistic creativity, benefit both the individuals who possess them and society as a whole. Yet the Pew survey results highlight the utmost importance of communication skills. Communication skills consequently deserve great emphasis in education.
Communication as a domain is broad and encompasses numerous subdomains, including reading, writing, interpersonal communication, and public speaking, among others. The concept of communication itself evades a clear, concise definition that encompasses all subdomains, but a variety of academic definitions collectively highlight features of communication such as information exchange, use of linguistic and nonlinguistic symbols, mutual understanding, social interaction, and intentionality (Dance, 1970). Putting these pieces together, we view communication here as a social process in which information is exchanged in order to establish shared meaning and to achieve desired outcomes. Communication takes many real-world forms, like chatting with friends or colleagues, reading the newspaper, giving a presentation, or writing an email. It can be verbal or nonverbal, analog or digital, casual or formal. It can achieve different outcomes: informing, persuading, questioning, or entertaining, to name a few. Ultimately, communication is a complex domain consisting of numerous interrelated subdomains that each take on a variety of unique forms. To lead a happy and successful life, one must master the skills that support effective communication in the forms of communication they encounter most commonly. Research generally supports the importance of communication skills. On a personal level, communication skills are positively associated with satisfaction in romantic relationships (Eğeci&Gençöz, 2006; Litzinger& Gordon, 2005; Meeks, Hendrick, & Hendrick, 1998) and with families’ abilities to achieve healthy levels of cohesion and stability (Olson, 2000). Communication skills are also associated with greater peer acceptance among preschoolers (Hazen & Black, 1989) and use of friendshipformation strategies among college freshmen (McEwan & Guerrero, 2010), indicating a potential role for communication skills in building friendships. Communication skills could even be good for your health. Good communication between patients and physicians has been linked to increased patient satisfaction (Chang et al., 2006; Shaw, Zaia, Pransky, Winters, & Patterson, 2005; Thompson, Collins, & Hearn, 1990) and, perhaps most importantly, improved health outcomes (Stewart, 1995).
Ситуационнаязадача__№_4_Read_and_translate_the_text._Make_6_special_and_two_general_questions_to_the_text.__Write_the_annotation_of_the_text.'>Ситуационнаязадача № 3
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
While all of this research is correlational in nature, it is consistent with the conclusion that communication skills can promote a happy and healthy personal life. Communication skills have also been linked to academic success. Oral reading skill in First Grade is predictive of growth in reading and math skills from Third through Eighth Grade (Herbers et al., 2012). Similarly, reading skill in Third Grade is predictive of the probability of graduating from high school (Hernandez, 2011). Encouragingly, data in both cases suggest that greater reading skill might mitigate some of the negative effects of childhood poverty on academic achievement. In higher education, communication skill assessed at the outset of college is linked with higher grades and graduation rates (Hawken, Duran, & Kelly, 1991; Rubin, Graham, &Mignerey, 1990). Students’ emotions with respect to communication are linked to academic success as well. Specifically, communication anxiety is associated with decreased communication with instructors outside of class (Martin & Myers, 2006), lower grade-point averages (McCroskey, Booth-Butterfield, & Payne, 1989) and increased dropout rates (Ericson & Gardner, 1992; McCroskey et al., 1989; Rubin et al., 1990).
Research therefore establishes a link between communication skills and success in school from elementary school through college. Strong communication skills are associated with success in professional settings as well. Business partnerships (Mohr &Spekman, 1994) and business–customer relations (Sharma & Patterson, 1999) are strengthened by effective communication, and, in the global working world, intercultural business teams perform better when members possess strong intercultural communication skills (Congden, Matveev, &Desplaces, 2009; Matveev& Nelson, 2004). Communication skills are important for securing a job and career advancement, with strong majorities of surveyed business executives indicating that communication skills play an important role in employee hiring and evaluation and in the overall success of their businesses (American Management Association, 2012; National Association of Colleges and Employers, 2016; Paranto& Kelkar, 1999; Robles, 2012). In a national survey conducted in 2012, over 95 percent of surveyed executives said that communication skills are somewhat or most important in helping grow their organizations, and nearly 75 percent said that communication skills would become more important to their organizations.
Ситуационнаязадача № 4
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
Postgraduate Study in Great Britain
In recent years, postgraduate study in the UK has experienced phenomenal growth. This increase reflects the United Kingdom‟s extraordinary range of taught and research opportunities at higher education institutions, both for students in the UK and from overseas.
A quick look through the postgraduate prospectus of any UK university will reveal that there are two distinct types of study possible, the first is by instruction or a taught course, the second is by research. There may be a combination of both too, as an increasing number of postgraduate courses now contain both research and taught elements, although the traditional division between the two modes of delivery still exists.
The most common type of course in terms of the number of people undertaking them are taught courses, or courses by instruction. Taught courses usually last one academic year full-time or two years part-time and lead to a higher degree such as a Master of Science (MSc) or a Master of Arts (MA). Applicants usually hold a degree in the same subject as the intended area of study.
Degrees by instruction are very similar to undergraduate courses in that most of the time is devoted to attending lectures. The course is followed by written examinations and the production of the thesis. Finally, an oral examination is held to test the knowledge accumulated throughout the year. It is important to perform satisfactorily in every part of this assessment procedure.
The different courses on the programme are coordinated so that students‟ workload is manageable and evenly spread throughout the year. The courses are taught intensively through lectures and small group tutorials, and rapidly bring students to an advanced level of understanding. A postgraduate‟s progress is continually assessed and students regularly contact with teaching staff adding to the vital interchange of ideas. In addition to lectures and tutorials, most courses include projects and practical work, essays, and problem classes. Case studies on – and visits to – relevant organizations are a feature of many courses.
Dissertations or supervised projects – major components of Master‟s courses – are essentially research-based and are a valuable preparation for a research Doctorate.
The nature of a research course is completely different, however, from that taken through a taught course. First of all, it lasts longer. The most popular qualification is Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), which usually takes three years. There is a shorter version called Master of Philosophy (MPhil), but minimum amount of time, which this takes, is usually two years. Both of these qualifications require the student carry out a piece of innovative research in a particular area of study. It is essential that the work has never been done before. Students are given training in research methods as well as the opportunity to pursue independent research under the guidance of experienced academics and, if studying a technical subject, to use highly sophisticated equipment.
Ситуационнаязадача № 5
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
Why Do We Choose Postgraduate Studies?
What does choosing the postgraduate course mean for a person? It is going up the level higher than the first degree. What are the reasons for taking postgraduate studies? The first one is the stimulus of the intellectual challenge: working with concepts, approaches, methods and ideas, developing skills of analysis and research among the researchers and academics.
The second reason is the personal challenge. What is the difference between the undergraduate and the postgraduate level? Undergraduate level develops study skills and the ability of independent studies, and the postgraduate course specifies skills perfection, responsibility, independence in one’s own learning, ability to work with complex ideas and concepts and developing them.
Next, there is the serious problem of career prospects, more interesting and highly paid jobs. PhD degree or degree of Doctor of Science can be an obligatory requirement for entering the career, the researcher career or securing promotion to higher levels. In some professional fields the joint programs of universities and employers are undertaken both at undergraduate and postgraduate level and these programs are defined as the first stage of learning for the trainees.
For a number of postgraduates entering academic career as the university teacher and researcher is important. Besides, with rapid extension of higher education in some countries high-status academic position is available only with the Doctorate. It means the increase of the demand for people educated to Doctorate level.
I have chosen the magistracy/postgraduate course. What does it mean? It’s my choice.
Why have I done it? The main thing is I would like to become a professional in the sphere of computer science. As a matter of fact, I follow the concept of the extended studies. First of all, I would like to become a programmer and then the computer analyst. I have to learn all the newly advanced technologies both in Russian and in English, to read the electronic and published materials, and also to be capable of carrying out the creative project work.
My research supervisor is the Doctor of Engineering, Professor. I admire him as the scientist. He is the Head of Department of Information and Computing Systems. He is the scientific research organizer. The teachers conduct scientific researches personally and in groups in accordance with the plan of the department. There are lectures and seminars. My supervisor is known both in Russia and in the world. He is often the participant of regional or international home and foreign conferences. He is in contact with the other world scientists.
As for me, I have chosen my subject already. Writing dissertation abstract with research actuality, purposes and tasks, theoretical and practical meaning, innovations is very substantial. After that I have to choose the material and make some notes, write draft, structure of my paper, edit and publish it.
Ситуационнаязадача № 6
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
Employers appear to value written and oral communication skills approximately equally (National Association of Colleges and Employers, 2016), focusing on specific skills ranging from basic writing, speaking, and listening skills to delivering effective presentations. In short, employers recognize the value of communication skills and actively seek out candidates who can communicate effectively. The importance of communication skills to personal, academic, and professional success is recognized in elements of current educational standards and practices. In the United States, the Common Core English and Language Arts Standards specify numerous reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills from kindergarten through high school (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010). While the Common Core has been contentious, forty-two of the fifty US states currently have adopted these standards (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2017), reflecting a commitment in US public education to teach a variety of communication skills starting at young age. In higher education, approximately half of surveyed US and Canadian colleges and universities have implemented “writing across the curriculum” or “writing in the disciplines” programs. These programs are designed to take writing-intensive instruction beyond traditional composition courses in order to promote writing skills in all disciplines.
Beyond undergraduate education, communication instruction plays a particularly central role in medical school, preparing future physicians to both gather and convey information effectively and in a way that helps patients feel at ease. These examples are not comprehensive, but they do give a general idea of the scope of communication-skill teaching in education at all levels. As detailed later in this paper, efforts to teach and assess communication skills are many, and research attests to the efficacy of numerous practices. Still, there is evidence that communication-skills training could improve in preparing students for success. It is not uncommon for teachers to bemoan students’ reading, writing, and speaking skills (see Palmer, 2016, and Strauss, 2017, for examples). Additionally, the 2011 National Assessment of Educational Progress found that only 3 percent of students in Eighth and Twelfth Grades performed at the highest achievement level of a standardized writing assessment, while just over half of these students performed at the lowest level, indicating only partial mastery of skills necessary for proficient writing at the students’ current grade levels (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012).
Ситуационнаязадача № 7
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
Types of Postgraduate Programs
Actually, there are two main types of postgraduate programs: taught and research. What is the difference? How can one define the program type? In taught programs training is mainly carried out through classroom lectures and practice, seminars, computing and laboratory, coursework and exams. The work in a research program is the knowledge development. It is usually part of the educational institution research. The entry criteria and the description are of a great help.
All master’s programs contain the research elements, and there are some combined programs with taught and research elements, for example, the Doctor of Engineering (DEng). Funded integrated programs are of special interest. The designation ‘3+1’ means an academic year in the master’s studies and three-year PhD. The conversion courses are intended to change the students’ research direction according to the new career. That is why these courses are intense and deep in the new research subject. Program coordinators help everybody to choose the program.
In fact, stand-alone taught postgraduate programs are the first stage in postgraduate education before obtaining a research degree. In the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the UK) there are three levels in taught program: postgraduate certificate (PGCert), postgraduate diploma (PGDip) or masters (in science − MSc). They are less than a year and can be either a part of continuing professional development (CPD) or preparation for the full time taught program.
Sometimes diplomas (MScDiplomas) are awarded to students following the masters (full time program during a year, part time program for two years) without completing the dissertation (20, 000 words). Engineering programs can be achieved both as an extended period of undergraduate study during a year – M (Eng) or stand-alone one-year programs for thorough learning the specific area of the discipline − MSc.
In research programs the master’s level for two years is called Master of Research (MRes) or Master of Philosophy (MPhil). All these programs teach mainly the research skills. PhD is the highest research degree, three years or more. It is much longer, from 7, 000 to 10, 000 words. With PhD one becomes a leading expert in a certain specialization.
Ситуационнаязадача__№_8_Read_and_translate_the_text._Make_6_special_and_two_general_questions_to_the_text.__Write_the_annotation_of_the_text._SCIENCE'>Ситуационнаязадача № 8
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
SCIENCE
For many thousands of years, the earth was inhabited by creatures who lived and died without passing on their experiences to following generations. These early fish, reptiles, birds and mammals could only «talk» to each other through the roars, calls and screams of the jungle. Yet, somehow, from these prehistoric beings a more intelligent animal evolved with a brain able to form the controlled sounds of speech.
This human being began to use rocks and trees to fashion weapons to help him hunt for food. Stones and spears were probably the first tools used by humans as extensions of their own bodies – the spear could travel faster in flight than man could run – and this ability to invent tools and pass on knowledge gave man a growing control of his surroundings. His search for new ways to survive and to improve his way of life continued through the ages thus the story of man’s world of science and invention was shaped.
Writing is known to contribute much to man’s experience accumulation, books printing being his greatest brainchild. As knowledge grew and the art of writing developed, parts of the story were recorded – some in one book, some in another. No man could remember all there was to know and writers found it useful to classify their knowledge under separate headings – much like a library arranges its books in sections so that the reader will know where to look for each subject. Science became separated into various branches. But its progress began only when man started to search for natural laws and principles, and produced theories, applying to scientific methods, such as: observation, analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, hypothesis and experimentation.