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In the workplace, nearly three-quarters of employers report difficulty finding job candidates who possess requisite communication skills (Business Roundtable, 2017). Silicon Valley recruiters have previously noted that new hires were lacking in writing skills, professional email etiquette, and self-expression capability. Furthermore, 64 percent of employers say that new graduates possess average or below average communication skills, compared to approximately 45 percent who say the same of more experienced workers (American Management Association). Highlighting these findings is not intended to disparage or dishearten; rather, these findings serve as a reminder that education in communication skills, as in all areas, can always improve. This paper aims to provide guidance for doing just that. In the rest of this paper, we identify a set of skills that support successful communication in its many forms, discuss strategies for teaching those skills, and describe methods for their assessment.
Communication Models and Skills Up to now, we have discussed communication skills in general terms. In this section, we establish a specific set of skills that support effective communication. To do so, we first review a number of influential theoretical models of communication in order to establish a number of core principles. We then draw upon these principles to identify a set of skills necessary for effective communication across a wide array of domains.
Ситуационнаязадача № 23
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
RECEPTION SKILLS
Receiving messages draws upon many of the skills required for effective message production. Like production, reception requires basic linguistic and visual competencies for encoding and decoding linguistic and nonlinguistic symbols. Receivers additionally must be able to model the minds of senders to reliably recover intended meanings, and, because senders and receivers can differ in social and cultural backgrounds, reception requires adequate skill in intercultural communication. Receivers must be aware of the conventions governing communication in various contexts and channels in order to accurately interpret the message in context of those conventions. Finally, receivers must also determine their own desired outcomes; for example, a reader of a complex text might first determine what specific information they are looking for. Receiving messages also requires skills not involved in message production: specifically, those involved in listening and reading. While the basic decoding of linguistic and nonlinguistic signals can be viewed as a largely passive act, receiving a message also requires active effort on the part of the listener or reader in order to fully appreciate a sender’s intended meaning and communicative goals. Various strategies for taking an active role in reading and listening have been proposed, going by terms such as “active listening” (e.g., Hoppe, 2007) and “deep” (e.g., Wolf &Barzillai, 2009) or “close reading” (e.g., Brummett, 2010). What these receptive techniques have in common is that receivers are encouraged to actively attend to the messages, monitor their own understanding, and consider the background, emotions, and intentions of the sender. Active Listening Active listening is most commonly applied to interpersonal communication and was developed initially for application in psychological counseling, though
Hoppe (2007) proposes six specific skills with respect to active listening in face-to-face communication: 1. paying attention; 2. withholding judgment; 3. reflecting; 4. clarifying; 5. summarizing; 6. sharing.
In paying attention, the listener not only carefully attends to the speaker but also overtly demonstrates this attention with behaviors such as eye contact and bodily posture. Withholding judgment helps the listener avoid interference in interpretation from their own preconceived beliefs, biases, or social or cultural norms. Reflecting involves briefly paraphrasing the speaker’s message, thereby providing an opportunity to uncover possible misunderstanding. Clarifying involves requesting further information to encourage the speaker to provide all necessary information for the listener to recover the intended meaning and to uncover the speaker’s communicative goal. Summarizing the speaker’s message occurs at the end of the listening process, providing a final opportunity to identify any misunderstandings or points of ambiguity. Finally, sharing involves informing the speaker about one’s own ideas and feelings with respect to what the speaker has conveyed. All the while, it is important for the listener not to interrupt the speaker. These active-listening skills support accurately and objectively recovering intended meaning in the context of interpersonal communication. Note that withholding judgment can also support one-way communication, for example, when reading a politician’s statement in support of a controversial government program.
Ситуационнаязадача № 24
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
British and American Universities
British and American Universities are similar in their pursuit of knowledge (в погонезазнаниями) as a goal but are quite different in their organisation and operation.
English universities and colleges because of their selective intake, are relatively small. American Universities, which combine a number of
different colleges and professional schools, are large, sometimes with 20,000 to 25,000 students on one campus (территорияколледжа). Teacher training colleges and polytechnics are alternative to the university course for some students in Britain, being established for specific purposes. In contrast, virtually all schools of education, engineering and business studies, are integral parts of universities in the United States. In Britain universities receive about 70% of their financial support through Parliamentary grants. Similarly, in the US, public institutions receive about 75% of their funds from local, state and federal sources, but private colleges and universities receive little or no government support. In the UK, personal aid is provided by the government to over 80% of the students through local educational authorities according to the parents’ income. In the US student’s aid is administrated by the university or the sponsoring agency and is provided by private organisations and the state or federal governments.
The structure of almost all British universities (except Oxford and Cambridge) is similar to Russian ones, with a central administration in the main building, various faculties, and within the faculties, various departments. Professors run the departments, deans rule the faculties, and at the top of the hierarchy is the Vice Chancellor, equivalent to your Rector. He or she has some kind of council to help govern the university.
Oxford and Cambridge, however, are quite different. You must imagine a federation of autonomous republics with a common foreign policy (dealing with the government and other universities) and with a common budget (money from the government and other national and international sources) and a set of common values (the teaching of undergraduates and graduates and the pursuit of scholarly research), which are at the same time fiercely independent «republics» with their own funds, their own students, their own projects and enthusiasm. Both the University and its colleges are very democratic institutions. Every member of the university is also a member of a college. The 3,200 senior members of the University (those engaged in teaching and research) vote for the Vice Chancellor, who is appointed for four years only and cannot be reelected; they also vote for the two governing councils, for the faculty committees, the library committees, and the administration. At the same time, as «Fellows» (членыСовета) of their own college, they appoint new fellows, select students from the many who apply to enter the university, organise the finances and take on many practical responsibilities.
Academic Student Life in the US.
Academic year is usually nine-month duration, or two semesters of 4 and a half months each. Classes usually begin in September and end in July. There are summer classes for those who want to improve the grades or take up additional courses.
During one term or semester, a student will study, simultaneously (одновременно), four or five different subjects. At the undergraduate level, there may be some courses that every student has to take (for example, classes in world history, math, writing or research). But students select their major plus a number of electives (факультативныекурсы) (courses they do not have to take, but may choose). The students’ progress is often assessed through quizzes (short oral or written tests), term papers and a final examination in each course. Typically, an undergraduate student has to earn a number of credits (about 120) in order to receive degree at the end of four years of college. Credits are earned by attending lectures (or lab classes) and by successfully completing assignments and examinations. One credit usually equals one hour of class per week in a single course. A three-credit course in biology could involve two hours of lectures plus one hour in a science lab every week. The course may last 10 to 16 weeks - the length of a semester. Any student may audit a course, that is to take up an extra course for personal interest without earning credits, it must be paid for on an hourly basis.
Each part of a student’s work in a course is given a mark which helps to determine his final grade. A student record consists of his grade in each course. College grades, determined by each instructor on the basis of class work and examinations, are usually on a five-point scale, with letters to indicate the levels of achievement. A - is the highest mark, indicating superior accomplishment (достижение), and the letters go through B, C, D to E or F which denotes failure. Many schools assign points for each grade (A=5, B=4, etc.) so that grade point average (3,5) is required to continue in school and to graduate.
Ситуационнаязадача № 25
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
COMMUNICATION IN PRACTICE
DEEP READING
Like active listening, “deep” or “close” reading requires active effort on the part of the receiver. However, while active listening focuses mainly on developing understanding without judgment, deep reading focuses more on critical analysis. Davis (1944) identifies nine fundamental reading skills. These include basic skills such as knowing word meanings and answering questions using information stated in a text, as well as more complex skills such as drawing inferences about unstated information and determining a writer’s intent. These more complex skills begin to get at the notion of “deep” or “close” reading mentioned above. Wolf and Barzillai (2009, p. 32) define deep reading as “the array of sophisticated processes that propel comprehension and that include inferential and deductive reasoning, analogical skills, critical analysis, reflection, and insight.” Ultimately, these skills are applicable to a broad range of communicative contexts beyond reading books and papers, as effectively receiving any message can require some degree of critical analysis and reflection. In reality, deep-reading skills overlap to a significant degree with more general critical-thinking skills. In this and the preceding section, we have identified eight core communication skills related to effective production and reception of messages across a wide array of communicative domains. Table 1 summarizes these skills and provides for each a few examples of behaviors exhibiting the application of the skills.
The Center for Advanced Professional Studies (CAPS) provides high-school juniors and seniors with the training they need to succeed in high-demand, high-skill jobs. CAPS teachesprofessional skills holistically in the context of projects and interactions with peers, instructors, and business partners. Below are examples of how CAPS students learn and practice communication skills across three academic disciplines.
Caps Medical Simulation Lab
CAPS medicine and healthcare students participate in sessions in the Medical Simulation Lab with a high-fidelity patient simulator. Students become healthcare providers, working in teams and assuming different healthcare professional roles. These simulation exercises allow students to practice interprofessional communication while receiving an introduction to basic clinical skills. As students try on varied healthcare roles from week to week, they interact with a computerized patient and their peers to diagnose and treat a variety of medical issues. The Simulation Lab provides students with the opportunity to develop and enhance communications skills and confidence in their own abilities without worrying about compromising patient safety. Students quickly learn that professionals in healthcare must communicate and collaborate because access to data is growing rapidly and no professional has complete mastery of the knowledge and skills across all areas. The Simulation Lab is a learning springboard for young professionals, providing a foundation for future growth and development.
Ситуационнаязадача № 26
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
University and Higher Degrees in Great Britain
In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the most usual titles for a first or an undergraduate degree are Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BSc). A first degree is usually awarded at the end of a three-year course, which most people start at the age of 18/19, after leaving school, a second degree is Master of Arts (MA) or Master of Science (MSc) and the highest degree is Doctor of Philosophy (PhD).
A higher degree is one which is awarded after further study, usually, although not always, involving research. It is sometimes also called a further degree.
The range of second or further degrees in Britain is huge and complex – and depends on the arrangements of each autonomous university. There are MPhil (Master or Philosophy), MEng (Master of Engineering), MArch (Master of Architecture), and many others. Although some students take their second degree in the same university as their first degree, many more move to another university.
The award of a Master‟s degree is the culmination of what is normally one-year full time or two-years of part-time taught study and demonstrates the attainment of mastery in the chosen subject area.
Until recently, postgraduate Master‟s degrees were awarded without grade or class. Nowadays, however, Master‟s degrees are classified into categories of Pass, Merit and Distinction – commonly 50+, 60+, and 70+ percent marks, respectively.
The most common types of research postgraduate Masters are MPhil and MRes. The Master of Philosophy (MPhil) is a research degree awarded for the completion of a thesis. It is a shorter version of the PhD but is of a lower standard. The Master of Research (MRes) degree is a more structured and organized version of the MPhil, usually designed to prepare a student for a career in research. For example, an MRes may combine individual research with periods of work placement in research institutions.
The Universities of Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin award MA degree to BAs without further examination, when a certain number of years have passed and (in some cases but not all cases) upon payment of a nominal fee. The MAs awarded by Oxford and Cambridge are colloquially known as the Oxbridge MA.
The doctorate generally requires an outstanding proficiency in some specialised branch of research. It is regarded as the highest degree. The degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) is awarded after a minimum of two or three years‟ research and indicates a higher level of attainment than a Master‟s degree. The degree often leads to careers in academia as a lecturer or researcher. The use of the word philosophy does not mean that the degree is restricted to philosophy. The name is the same for all faculties, and one may have a DPhil in English, or mathematics, or geography. From a practical point of view philosophy here means the same as наук in the names кандидатилидокторнаук.
Uniformity of standards between universities is promoted by the practice of employing outside examiners for all examinations, and the general pattern of teaching (a combination of lectures, small group seminars or tutorials with practical classes where necessary) is fairly similar throughout Britain.
University and Higher Degrees in the USA
An academic degree is a title conferred upon an individual by colleges that officially recognizes completion of a prescribed academic curriculum undertaken at the undergraduate or graduate academic level.
The Bachelor of Arts (B. A.) degree is typically conferred by institutions of higher learning that are designated as four-year colleges, many of which are part of universities. In general, completion of a B.A. degree means that students successfully complete course work and fulfill certain requirements. Most bachelor‟s degree programs require at least 120 credits to graduate.
According to the US Department of Education as for graduate education, it falls into the following categories: master‟s degree education, research doctoral degree education and postdoctoral training.
The Master‟s degree
Graduate degrees vary, but the most commonly completed graduate degree is the Master‟s degree. The master‟s degree is awarded upon completion of one to two years of advanced graduate study beyond the Bachelor‟s degree, depending on the field of study and conferring institution. It recognizes heightened expertise in an academic discipline or professional field of study, gained through intensive course work; the preparation of a culminating project or scholarly paper or thesis; or successful completion of a comprehensive examination which tests students on foundational knowledge in the field of study.
Master‟s degrees can be separated into two types: the research master‟s degree (academic) and the professional master‟s degree (professional). Popular graduate degrees include the Master‟s of Business administration (M.B.A.), Fine arts (M.F.A.), Social work (M.S.W.), Law (LL.M.), and specialist in education (Ed.S.).