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Ситуационнаязадача № 9
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
COMMUNICATION MODELS
Aristotle’s The Art of Rhetoric presents an influential model of communication dating back to the fourth century BCE. Focusing specifically on persuasion, Aristotle proposes three modes: ethos, pathos, and logos. Ethos refers to the persuasive power of establishing credibility with the audience, which can be done by, for example, demonstrating wisdom or good intentions. Pathos refers to the emotions of the audience, which can be evoked and manipulated in order to make the audience more receptive to an argument. Logos refers to the logic of an argument, with soundly reasoned arguments more effective in persuasion. Aristotle’s theory of persuasion covers far more than these three modes, but these modes highlight several important aspects of communication. First, an act of communication generally has a desired outcome (here, convincing an audience of an argument). Second, communication is affected by the emotions, beliefs, and social orientations of those involved. Third, effective communication depends on the specific content and structure of what is communicated.
Teaching production skills
Producing effective messages is a complex skill, and researchers have explored a number of approaches to developing production skills in a variety of contexts. In particular, the research literature has targeted oral presentation, interpersonal communication, and written presentation, each of which will now be discussed in turn.
Public Speaking
One aspect of communication that many students struggle with is oral presentation, or public speaking. A common reason for this is that many people feel nervous when they need to speak in front of an audience, and instructional approaches have been developed that attempt to help learners overcome this apprehension. Many approaches target severe public-speaking anxiety, but they can help less severe cases as well. A meta-analysis by Allen, Hunter, and Donohue (1989) found that the most effective approaches combine a number of elements: relaxation techniques to mitigate physiological arousal; cognitive reappraisal to reframe the experience; public-speaking skill training to help boost confidence. How to best teach presentation skills themselves has been explored as well.
Ситуационнаязадача__№_11_Read_and_translate_the_text._Make_6_special_and_two_general_questions_to_the_text.__Write_the_annotation_of_the_text.'>Ситуационнаязадача № 10
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
SCIENCE
Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is an enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the world. An older and closely related meaning still in use today is that of Aristotle for whom scientific knowledge was a body of reliable knowledge that can be logically and rationally explained. Since classical antiquity science as a type of knowledge was closely linked to philosophy. In the early modern era the words "science" and "philosophy" were sometimes used interchangeably in the English language. By the 17th century, natural philosophy (which is today called "natural science") had begun to be considered separately from «philosophy» in general, while, "science" continued to be used in abroad sense denoting reliable knowledge about a topic, in the same way it is still used in modern terms such as library science.
However, in modern use, "science" is still mainly treated as synonymous with 'natural and physical science', and thus restricted to those branches of study that relate to the phenomena of the material universe and their laws, sometimes with implied exclusion of pure mathematics. This is now the dominant sense in ordinary use. The word "science" became increasingly associated with the disciplined study of physics, chemistry, geology and biology. This sometimes left the study of human thought and society in a linguistic limbo, which was resolved by classifying these areas of academic study as social science. In its turn the term «humanities» or «arts» refers to the subjects of study that are concerned with the way people think and behave, for example literature, language, history and philosophy (as it understood nowadays).
Science is often distinguished from other domains of human culture by its progressive nature: in contrast to art, religion, philosophy, morality, and politics, there exist clear standards or normative criteria for identifying improvements and advances in science. For example, the historian of science George Sarton argued that “the acquisition and systematization of positive knowledge are the only human activities which are truly cumulative and progressive,” and “progress has no definite and unquestionable meaning in other fields than the field of science”. However, the traditional cumulative view of scientific knowledge was effectively challenged by many philosophers of science in the 1960s and the 1970s, and thereby the notion of progress was also questioned in the field of science.
Debates on the normative concept of progress are at the same time concerned with axiological questions about the aims and goals of science. The task of philosophical analysis is to consider alternative answers to the question: What is meant by progress in science? This conceptual question can then be complemented by the methodological question: How can we recognize progressive developments in science? Relative to a definition of progress and an account of its best indicators, one may then study the factual question: to what extent, and in which respects, is science progressive?
Ситуационнаязадача № 11
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
Shannon and Weaver (1964) developed a highly influential model of communication primarily focused on the engineering of electronic communication systems. The model recognizes the following components of communication systems (with each accompanied by an example germane to the present discussion): „
Source: The sender of a message (a speaker). „
Message: The code conveying the information source’s intended meaning (a sentence). „ Transmitter: The apparatus that translates the message into a signal (the mouth and vocal cords). Signal: The physical output of the transmitter (sound waves). „
Channel: The medium through which the signal travels (air). „
Receiver: The apparatus that translates the signal back into a message (the listener’s eardrum). „ Destination: The interpreter of the message, who must recover the meaning intended by the information source (the listener). „
Noise: Undesired alterations to the signal (a loud cough).
These components highlight several general properties of communication systems. First, communication relies equally on source (henceforth, sender) and destination (henceforth, receiver). Additionally, while communication fundamentally involves the transfer of meaning, meaning, message, and signal are distinct. Meaning is translated into message, - 8 - then into signal, back to message, and back to meaning.
As Weaver notes, accurately recovering meaning from a message is an incredibly complex problem that relies both on the sender’s crafting of the message and the receiver’s ability to interpret that message as intended. Weaver additionally notes that even if the intended meaning is accurately conveyed, it is not guaranteed that the communication will lead to the desired outcome. Finally, Shannon and Weaver’s model stresses the importance of the channel over which communication takes place. Shannon and Weaver’s discussion of channel focuses largely on engineering issues such as information capacity and signal fidelity, but focus on communication channels more generally highlights the importance of the means by which any message is transmitted. For the present purposes, we note that a message can be sent through many types of “channels,” such as face-to-face conversations, instant messaging, email, written report, or oral presentation, each with its own properties and conventions regarding its use. Shannon and Weaver’s model ultimately did not incorporate what might be considered the more human elements of communication. These elements are addressed in Berlo’s (1960) seminal source– message–channel–receiver (SMCR) model, which extended Shannon and Weaver’s model to include human elements that impact the effectiveness of communication.
Ситуационнаязадача № 12
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
With respect to communicators themselves, Berlo recognized that communication skill, background knowledge, attitudes, and social and cultural backgrounds influence the successful conveying of meaning. With respect to messages, Berlo appreciated that a message’s ability to convey meaning relies not only on its content but also on its structure, the manner in which it is conveyed, the particular form it takes (e.g., speech versus text), and the secondary elements that accompany it, such as gestures. With respect to the channel, Berlo’s model recognized the importance of the five senses, noting that communication involves transmission of a signal that can engage any number of senses. One interesting commonality among the models reviewed thus far is that they make a clear distinction between sender and receiver. Indeed, many forms of communication, for example writing a report or listening to a presentation, are one-way, with an individual acting as only sender or receiver. Yet, many other forms are two-way or interpersonal, with individuals acting as both sender and receiver in a dynamic, interactive exchange of messages. These forms of communication are addressed in Newcomb’s (1953) model of interpersonal communication, in which communication is viewed as a means by which communicators achieve a state of equilibrium between their feelings and beliefs with respect to some topic of communication and with respect to one another. This model makes no meaningful distinction between sender and receiver and additionally highlights the importance of the social orientation of each communicator toward COMMUNICATION MODELS AND SKILLS 1 Shannon and Weaver were particularly concerned with recovering the intended message from the signal when that signal is sent across a noisy channel, such as a telecommunication cable under electromagnetic interference. We ignore this issue of signal fidelity here, instead focusing primarily on the the effective conveying of meaning. Communication in Practice The Center for Advanced Professional Studies (CAPS) provides high-school juniors and seniors with the training they need to succeed in high-demand, highskill jobs. CAPS teaches professional skills holistically in the context of projects and interactions with peers, instructors, and business partners. Below are examples of how CAPS students learn and practice communication skills across three academic disciplines.
Ситуационнаязадача № 13
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
CAPS SIMULATION LAB
The Center for Advanced Professional Studies (CAPS) medicine and healthcare students participate in sessions in the Medical Simulation Lab with a high-fidelity patient simulator. Students become healthcare providers, working in teams and assuming different healthcare professional roles. These simulation exercises allow students to practice interprofessional communication while receiving an introduction to basic clinical skills. As students try on varied healthcare roles from week to week, they interact with a computerized patient and their peers to diagnose and treat a variety of medical issues. The Simulation Lab provides students with the opportunity to develop and enhance communications skills and confidence in their own abilities without worrying about compromising patient safety. Students quickly learn that professionals in healthcare must communicate and collaborate because access to data is growing rapidly and no professional has complete mastery of the knowledge and skills across all areas. The Simulation Lab is a learning springboard for young professionals, providing a foundation for future growth and development.
Engineering Communication skills are an essential component in the education of engineering students. They are one of eleven key outcomes required by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) and received the highest rating from employers in the study. Further supporting this, CAPS business partners have said repeatedly that oral communication and presentation skills are one of the best career enhancers and the single biggest factor in determining a student’s career success or failure. As a program that prepares students for post-secondary engineering programs, CAPS focuses on developing the communication - 9 - the other, a notion generally related to Aristotle’s notion of ethos originating over 2,000 years before Newcomb’s work. These models present only a small selection of theoretical approaches to communication, and in briefly summarizing them the complexity of communication is apparent. Still, these models collectively highlight the following principles: „ Communication involves the act of conveying meaning. „ Meaning is conveyed to achieve some outcome (e.g., informing, persuading, questioning). „ Meaning cannot be conveyed directly and must be transmitted via a message that is subject to interpretation by each individual communicator.
Ситуационнаязадача № 14
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE
As students of science you are probably sometimes puzzled by the terms "pure" and "applied" science. Are these two totally different activities, having little or no interconnection? Let us begin by examining what is done by each. Pure science is primarily concerned with the development of theories (or, as they are frequently called, models) establishing relationships between the phenomena of the universe. When they are sufficiently validated these theories (hypotheses, models) become the working laws or principles of science. In carrying out this work, the pure scientist usually disregards its application to practical affairs, confining his attention to explanations of how and why events occur.
Exact science in its generally accepted sense can be referred to as a family of specialized natural sciences, each of them providing evidence and information about the different aspects of nature by somewhat different working methods. It follows that mathematics in its pure sense does not enter into this frame, its object of study, being not nature itself Being independent of all observations of the outside world, it attempts to build logical systems based on axioms. In other words, it concentrates on formulating the language of mathematical symbols and equations which may be applied to the functional relations found in nature.
This "mathematization", in the opinion of most specialists, is witnessed first in physics which deals with general laws of matter and energy on subatomic, atomic and molecular levels. Further application of these mathematical laws and studies is made by chemistry and results in structural bonds between the elements of matter being established.
Ситуационнаязадача № 15
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
People are always talking about fundamental research, implying hereby the existence of a nameless opposite. A good definition of fundamental research will certainly be welcomed: let us see whether we can invent one. We have to begin, of course, by defining research. Unfortunately the concept of research contains a negative element. Research is searching without knowing what you are going to find: if you know what you are going to find you have already found it, and your activity is not research. Now, since the outcome of your research is unknown, how can you know whether it will be fundamental or not?
We may say for instance that fundamental research is that which you undertake without caring whether the results will be of practical value or not. It may not be reasonable to go further and say that funda-mental research is that which will be abandoned as soon as it shows a sign of leading to results of practical value. By saying this you may limit your own achievement. It will be better to say that fundamental research is that which may have no immediate practical value, but can be counted upon as leading to practical value sooner or later. The extension of knowledge and understanding of the world around us will always be profitable in the long run, if not in the short.
This is a very powerful argument for fundamental research and it is a completely unassailable one, and yet there are people who will not like it. Let us seek a definition that will give fundamental research a value of its own, not dependent upon other uses appearing soon or late. We say for instance that fundamental research is that which extends the theory. Now we have to theorize upon theory. There have been several viewpoints about theory. One is that theory discerns the underlying simplicity of the universe. The nontheorist sees a confused mass of phenomena; when he becomes a theorist they fuse into a simple and dignified structure. But some contemporary theories are so intricate that an increasing number of people prefer dealing with the confusion of the phenomena than with the confusion of theory.
A different idea suggests that theory enables one to calculate the result of an experiment in a shorter time than it takes to perform the experiment. I do not think that the definition is very pleasing to the theorists, for some problems are obviously solved more quickly by experimenters than by theorists. Another viewpoint is that theory serves to suggest new experiments. This is sound, but it makes the theorist the handman of the experimenter, and he may not like this auxiliary role. Still another viewpoint is that theory serves to discourage the waste of time on making useless experiments.
Let us try to flatter theory by giving it a definition that shall not describe it as a mere handmaid of experiment or a mere device for saving time. I suggest that theory is an intellectual instrument granting a deep and indescribable contentment to its designer and to its users. This instrument is made up of units which can be compared, for instance, to different branches of physics: solid state physics, relativity, acoustics, elementary particles and others, which sometimes have only a remote
relation with one another and may not even be interconnected at all. The rest of my talk will be devoted to a different question which is: how are we going to communicate to the layman some of our passion for our science? This is a very important question, for eveiyone is a layman until he becomes a scientist. If we can solve the problem of interesting the layman we may succeed in attracting the potential Fer-mis. Slaters, Lands and Fletchers of future into the field of, say, physics. Nothing could be more desirable.
A frequent technique is that of surprise. The trouble with this is that one cannot be surprised if one is not accustomed to the situation which is nullified by the surprise. Imagine, for example, a physicist trying to surprise an audience of laymen by telling them that there are a dozen elementary particles instead of two or three, or that the newest cyclotron imparts an energy of 500 mev to protons. It simply will not work, because the listeners will have no background to compare this information with. It is also a mistake to think that we can excite an audience by solving a mystery for them. The trouble here is that practically no one is interested in the answer to a question which he never thought of asking.
Relativity had a wonderful build-up in the decade before 1905, for the physicists of that era were acquainted with the sequence of experiments which were designed to show that the earth moves rela-tively to the ether and which obstinately showed the opposite. Each stage in the unfolding of quantum mechanics was exciting to the physicists who knew the earlier stages, because they knew the problems which were left unsolved. The writer of a detective story creates the mystery before he solves it; but the mystery usually begins with the discovery of a murdered man, and this is considerably more exciting than a murdered theory. The corresponding technique in physics consists in trying to create a particular state of out-of-dateness in the mind of the public, in the expectation of bringing them up-to-date at the end of the lecture or paper. There is too much risk of leaving the audience in the out-of-date condition, and this technique cannot be recommended. Another mistake, in my opinion at least, is that of stressing a paradox.
Try telling an audience that if you know the exact position of a particle you cannot know its momentum, and vice versa - the effect is unpredictable but obviously not what you wanted. Still another mistake is that of springing an isolated fact upon the audience. An isolated fact is not science and it is not interesting. Facts are of interest only as parts of a system. And we must strive to interest the layman in the system.
Ситуационнаязадача__№_18_Read_and_translate_the_text._Make_6_special_and_two_general_questions_to_the_text.__Write_the_annotation_of_the_text.'>Ситуационнаязадача__№_17_Read_and_translate_the_text._Make_6_special_and_two_general_questions_to_the_text.__Write_the_annotation_of_the_text.'>Ситуационнаязадача__№_16_Read_and_translate_the_text._Make_6_special_and_two_general_questions_to_the_text.__Write_the_annotation_of_the_text.'>Ситуационнаязадача № 16
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text.