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The research doctorate is the highest academic degree conferred upon an individual in the US system of graduate education. Course work and examinations play important roles in the first stages of a research doctoral degree program of study. However, what distinguishes this degree from all others (in particular, from first professional doctoral degrees) is its recognition of the recipient‟s proven ability to conduct independent research at a professional level in either an academic or professional discipline. This independent research, typically presented in the form of a thesis, dissertation, or other major culminating project, must pass the review of a committee of scholars from both within and outside the field of study. Because of the comprehensive nature of this independent research and because it must be deemed to represent an important contribution to the body of knowledge in the field of study, research doctoral degrees take an average seven years to complete. In some cases, the doctoral candidate must also complete a supervised internship.
The most commonly known research doctoral degree is the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). It is the highest academic credential that a student can earn in the USA, making it the most prestigious. However, there are a number of other doctoral degrees (professional) that enjoy the same status and represent variants of the PhD within certain fields. Examples are the Doctor of education (EdD), the Doctor of dental science (DScS), the Doctor of architecture (DArch) and others.
Postdoctoral Education
Many persons who have earned PhD or similar degrees enroll in postdoctoral training programs or internships. Lasting one or more years, these programs do not usually confer a degree, but they are often considered necessary for those hoping to launch a professional or academic career in a given field of study.
Honorary Degrees
Honorary degrees are awarded by institutions of higher education primarily in recognition of some significant achievement rather than the completion of an academic course of study. For this reason, honorary degrees are not generally considered comparable to their academic counterparts.
Ситуационнаязадача__№_27_Read_and_translate_the_text._Make_6_special_and_two_general_questions_to_the_text.__Write_the_annotation_of_the_text.'>Ситуационнаязадача № 27
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
COMMUNICATION MODELS AND SKILLS
ENGINEERING
Communication skills are an essential component in the education of engineering students. They are one of eleven key outcomes required by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) and received the highest rating from employers in the study. Further supporting this, CAPS (The Center for Advanced Professional Studies) business partners have said repeatedly that oral communication and presentation skills are one of the best career enhancers and the single biggest factor in determining a student’s career success or failure. As a program that prepares students for post-secondary engineering programs, CAPS focuses on developing the communication - the other, a notion generally related to Aristotle’s notion of ethos originating over 2,000 years before Newcomb’s work. These models present only a small selection of theoretical approaches to communication, and in briefly summarizing them the complexity of communication is apparent. Still, these models collectively highlight the following principles: Communication involves the act of conveying meaning. Meaning is conveyed to achieve some outcome (e.g., informing, persuading, questioning). Meaning cannot be conveyed directly and must be transmitted via a message that is subject to interpretation by each individual communicator. A message’s content, structure, and delivery are all critical to a message’s success in conveying the intended meaning. Messages can be any combination of linguistic and nonlinguistic symbols. Messages are sent through channels or mediums, each with unique properties that affect messages’ forms and interpretations. Senders and receivers of messages play equally important roles in the successful conveying of meaning. Communication can be one-way or interpersonal. A communicator’s production and interpretation of messages are affected in part by emotions, beliefs, knowledge, social and cultural background, social orientation toward other communicators, and communication skills.
Effective communication requires skills that support the successful conveying of meaning and, ultimately, the achieving of desired outcomes. A sender must be able to reliably craft and deliver messages that clearly convey the intended meaning and achieve the desired outcome. A receiver must possess the skills to attend to messages and to assign to those messages the meaning intended by the sender. Communicators must be able to apply these skills in a variety of communicative domains, across a multitude of channels, and among a diverse group of communicators, all the while maintaining a focus on the ultimate goals of the communicative process. The skills necessary for effective communication therefore are numerous and complex. In the following sections, we draw upon the principles above to identify a set of core communication skills. In order to be an effective communicator, one must possess skills that support both sending and receiving messages across the wide array of communicative domains and contexts encountered in life. We therefore identify a set of broadly applicable, domain-general skills. In keeping with the sender–receiver dichotomy, we first identify the skills central to producing effective messages before moving on to those necessary for effectively receiving messages.
COMMUNICATION MODELS AND SKILLS base upon which students can build. In keeping with the holistic approach to professional skill development, engineering students have ample opportunities to practice their oral, written, listening, visual, and interdisciplinary communication skills, including final presentations and interviews with industry professionals around project work. BUSINESS: “SHARK TANK” “If you cannot communicate well, you are never going to persuade the sharks to get behind your product or service.” That is one of the first lessons that the CAPS (The Center for Advanced Professional Studies) global-business students learn as they embark on culminating projects. To prepare students for time in the “Shark Tank,” students spend time throughout the semester honing elevator pitches and learning to quickly explain the differentiating elements of their products or services. Confidence can be learned, and it begins with establishing eye contact and making a simple and compelling pitch. Students routinely learn from sales and marketing professionals, and, more organically, they lead program tours, conduct meetings with business partners, and network throughout the community.
Teaching Communication Skills Having identified core communication skills, we now turn to the question of how to help learners acquire and refine these skills. Our review focuses on empirical research on effective teaching practices so as to provide evidence-based recommendations for certain practices. As we shall see, research on communication-skills teaching generally does not focus on teaching the individual skills above in domain-general fashion. Instead, research typically investigates teaching communication skills holistically within particular communicative domains such as reading, public speaking, or interpersonal communication. This is only natural, given that students must be prepared to communicate effectively in the specific domains that they will encounter in future academic and career contexts. The following research review on teaching practices (and that on assessment later in the paper) is structured accordingly.
Ситуационнаязадача № 28
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
THE PROCESS OF TEACHING
A teacher's main responsibility is to teach. The teacher's job involves many roles besides that of instructing students. At times, a teacher serves as a parent surrogate, entertainer, psychotherapist, and record keeper, among other things. All of these are necessary aspects of the teacher's role. However, they are subordinate to and in support of, the major role of teaching.
Some teachers become more concerned with mothering or entertaining students than with teaching them. In these classes, much of the day is spent in reading stories, playing games, singing and listening to records. Such teachers do not like to spend much time teaching the curriculum and feel they must apologize to children or bribe them when lessons are conducted. These teachers are meeting their own needs, not those of the students. By the end of the year, the pupils will have acquired negative attitude toward the school curriculum, and they will have failed to achieve near their potential.
The teacher is in the classroom to instruct. This involves move than just giving demonstrations or presenting learning experiences. Instruction also means giving additional help to those who are having difficulty, diagnosing the sources of their problems, and providing remedial assistance. For the teacher we see that it means finding satisfaction in the progress of slower students as well as brighter ones. If a teacher's method of handling students who finish quickly is to assign them more of the same kind of exercises, students will learn to work more slowly or hid the fact that they have finished. Teachers would do much better to assign alternate activities of the students' choice or to allow them to move on to more challenging problems of a similar type.
Another important indicator is the way teachers respond to right and wrong answers. When teachers have the appropriate attitude, they accept either type of response for the information it gives about the student. They become neither overly elated about correct answers nor overly disappointed about incorrect answers. They use questions as a way to stimulate thought and to acquire information about a student's progress.
Although praise and encouragement are important, they should not interfere with basic teaching goals. If a teacher responds with overly dramatic praise every time a student answers a simple question, the class will likely be distracted from the content of the lesson. A better strategy is to follow a simple correct answer with simple feedback to acknowledge that it is correct. Criticism, of course, should be omitted. In general, the teacher’s behavior during question-and-answer sessions should say, "We're going to discuss and deepen our understanding of the material," and not, "We’re going to find out who knows the material and who doesn't."
Although all students cannot be expected to do equally well, each teacher can establish reasonable minimal objectives for a class. Naturally, most students will be capable of going considerably beyond minimal objectives, and the teacher should encourage students' cognitive development as far as their interests and abilities allow. However, in doing so, teachers must not loose sight of basic priorities. Teachers with appropriate attitudes will spend extra time working with students who are having difficulty.
When teachers do have the appropriate attitude toward school-work, they present it in ways that make their students see it as enjoyable and interesting. Teachers should not expect students to enjoy learning in the same way they enjoy a ride on a roller coaster. Instead, there should be the quieter but consistent satisfaction and feelings of mastery that come with the accumulation of knowledge and skills.
Teachers with negative attitudes toward school learning see learning activities as unpleasant but necessary drudgery. If they believe in a positive approach toward motivation, they will attempt to generate enthusiasm through overemphasis on contests, rewards, and other external incentives. If they are more authoritarian and punitive, they will present assignments as bitter pills that students must swallow or else. In either case, the students will acquire distaste for school activities, thus providing reinforcement for teacher expectations.
Other evidence of inappropriate teacher attitudes toward school activities includes: emphasizing the separation of work and play, with work pictured as an unpleasant activity one endures in order
to get to play; introducing assignments as something the class has to do, rather than merely as something they are going to do; the use of extra assignments as punishments, etc. Teachers with negative attitudes also discuss academic subjects in a way that presents them as dull and devoid of content.
Teachers must communicate to all of their students the expectations that the students want to be fair, co-operative, reasonable, and responsible. This includes even those who consistently present the same behavior problems. If students see that teachers do not have the faith in them, they will probably lose whatever motivation they have to keep trying. Thus, teachers should be very careful to avoid suggesting that students deliberately hurt others or enjoy doing so, that they cannot control their own behavior, or that they simply do not care and are making no effort to do so. Such statements will only establish a negative self-concept and will lead to even more destructive behavior.
Ситуационнаязадача № 29
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
THE PURPOSE OF EDUCATION
There is a feeling that the schools are not succeeding – that standards are too low, that schools are not preparing young people with the skills, knowledge and personal qualities which are necessary for the world of work and schools have failed to instill the right social values. These are the criticisms and therefore there have been changes to meet these criticisms.
However, the criticisms take different forms. First, there are those who believe that standards have fallen, especially in the areas of literacy and numeracy – and indeed unfavourable comparisons are made with the other countries as a result of international surveys. For example, the recent Third International Mathematics and Science Survey (TIMSS) placed in England and Wales very low in mathematical achievement at 13 – although very high in science. Therefore, these critics emphasize «back to basis» and the need for more traditional teaching methods.
Second, there are those who argue for a rather traditional curriculum which is divided into «subjects» and which calls upon those cultural standards which previous generations have known – the study of literary classics (Shakespeare, Keats, Wordsworth), rather than popular multi-cultural history, classical music rather than popular music, and so on. Since there are many children who would not be interested in or capable of learning within these subjects, there is a tendency for such advocates of traditional standards to support an early selection of children into «the minority» who are capable of being so educated, separated off from «the majority» who are thought to benefit more from a more technical or practical education.
Third, there are those who question deeply the idea of a curriculum based on these traditional subjects. Many employers, for instance, think that such a curriculum by itself ill – serves the country economically. The curriculum ought to be more relevant to the world of work, providing those skills, such as computer, numeracy and literacy skills, personal qualities (such as cooperation and enterprise) and knowledge (such as economic awareness) which make people more employable.
A very important speech which expressed those concerns and which is seen as a watershed in government policy was that of Prime Minister Callaghan at Ruskin College, Oxford, in 1976.
«Preparing future generations for life» was the theme and he pointed to the need for greater relevance in education on four fronts: the acquisition by school leavers of basic skills which they lacked but which industry needed; the development of more positive attitudes to industry and to the economic needs of society; greater technological know-how so that they might live effectively in a technological society; the development of personal qualities for coping with an unpredictable future.
Ситуационнаязадача № 30
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
CAREER PROSPECTS FOR POSTGRADUATES
Postgraduate sector is mushrooming today. Further study is undertaken for a variety of reasons but usually with some career aim in mind. Just getting a university degree isn‟t enough nowadays, many undergraduates feel an extra qualification is a way to distinguish themselves from a large number of job-hunters clutching a first-degree certificate. A higher degree can open new options to them when entering the same job market as an undergraduate. Employers are increasingly looking for graduates who can hit the ground running, who can demonstrate both breadth and depth of subject knowledge.
Postgraduate study is fundamental to the development of higher level skills. The process of achieving a research degree develops an inquiring mind, independence of thought, problem-solving abilities, an ability to work autonomously and the ability to assimilate, articulate and defend new ideas. The benefits of post-graduate education are obvious: development of key skills, the chance to put theory into practice, greater understanding of career choices, valuable career contacts for the future.
Postgraduates are among the most intelligent students. They tend to be people who have succeeded academically. The view that postgraduates are other-worldly and lacking in drive is outdated, and there is evidence that employers are taking postgraduates much more seriously. Having organized their own studies, postgraduates can be good project managers, experts in analysis, and capable of working through complex processes without being intimidated.
A postgraduate qualification from the BSU is one that is recognized globally and will provide an excellent route to better career prospects. Major companies say they would rather employ students from the BSU. The BSU‟s high quality facilities and teaching and its interdisciplinary approach to research will enable trainees to complete a high-quality master‟s or doctoral thesis and to develop a range of knowledge, understanding and skills necessary for their future employment.
The current crop of PhD students are surely busier than their predecessors, and are being required to professionalize earlier. Not only are they working to finish their dissertations within the three-year period of their awards, but engaged in other activities entirely appropriate to their stage of career. They often do teaching, make research trips, attend seminars, lectures, conferences where they get experience in delivering materials in a public forum, and develop presentation skills.
Combining subjects in a degree programme is a popular way of tailoring a course to reflect one‟s career aspirations. Employment opportunities demand well developed language skills. The course of a foreign language will provide language training opportunities for all students whatever course they are taking.
Students working towards a PhD have already completed a Master‟s degree. It is crucial that learners considering this option have a deep interest in their subject and a commitment to producing a piece of original research despite the pressure to complete the dissertation on time and have a certain number of publications. It is equally important that they have a research topic which is both interesting to them, and viable in the context of a research degree.
Whatever career path a postgraduate chooses most employers are sure to value the skills he has developed while doing a degree.