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Write the annotation of the text.
PRODUCTION SKILLS
Identifying Desired Outcomes
An act of communication is effective when it achieves one or more intended outcomes. Effective communication therefore begins with identifying outcomes, which requires the ability to reason about outcomes in a principled way with respect to any specific communicative act. The concepts of illocution and perlocution (Austin, 1962) are particularly useful for this purpose. Illocution refers to the function of an act of communication, for example to convey or request information, to assert something as true, or to promise to do something. (Searle, 1975, presents an influential taxonomy of illocutionary acts.) However, the illocution of a communicative act ultimately is distinct from the effect that the communicative act has on the receiver, which is known as the perlocution. For example, a sender promising to do the receiver a favor (illocution) might cause the receiver to feel a sense of gratitude (perlocution). Aristotle’s Rhetoric focused on persuasion, a very common perlocution in educational and professional contexts. An effective sender must target a specific illocution, perlocution, or both when communicating. For example, when delivering a presentation, one must decide if the presentation is intended simply to convey information or to make an argument. Once that is determined, the sender must craft a presentation likely to cause the audience to understand and remember the information (in the former case) or to be persuaded by the argument (in the latter case).
Ситуационнаязадача № 17
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
Crafting Clear Messages
A message’s content, structure, and delivery are all critical to a message’s success in conveying the intended meaning. „ Messages can be any combination of linguistic and nonlinguistic symbols. „ Messages are sent through channels or mediums, each with unique properties that affect messages’ forms and interpretations. „ Senders and receivers of messages play equally important roles in the successful conveying of meaning. „ Communication can be one-way or interpersonal. „ A communicator’s production and interpretation of messages are affected in part by emotions, beliefs, knowledge, social and cultural background, social orientation toward other communicators, and communication skills. The last point is important: Effective communication requires skills that support the successful conveying of meaning and, ultimately, the achieving of desired outcomes. A sender must be able to reliably craft and deliver messages that clearly convey the intended meaning and achieve the desired outcome. A receiver must possess the skills to attend to messages and to assign to those messages the meaning intended by the sender. Communicators must be able to apply these skills in a variety of communicative domains, across a multitude of channels, and among a diverse group of communicators, all the while maintaining a focus on the ultimate goals of the communicative process. The skills necessary for effective communication therefore are numerous and complex. In the following sections, we draw upon the principles above to identify a set of core communication skills. In order to be an effective communicator, one must possess skills that support both sending and receiving messages across the wide array of communicative domains and contexts encountered in life.
In addition to identifying the intended outcome, a sender must craft a message that clearly conveys a meaning that promotes that outcome. In the realm of message clarity, copious recommendations on clear writing have been made (see Gunning, 1952, and Young, 2002, for highly cited examples), and many of these recommendations can be applied to clarity in speech as well. At a minimum, message clarity depends upon employing appropriate vocabulary, grammar, and logical structures, but clarity does not rest solely on these factors. It also depends on pragmatics, or issues related to the broader context in which a message is situated. Grice’s (1975) maxims of conversational “cooperation” are perhaps the most influential ideas in pragmatics. The maxims state that a message should:
1. provide the exact amount of information required, no more or less;
2. present only relevant information;
3. be concise and avoid ambiguity and obscurity;
4. not present false information.
Adhering to these principles a sender can enhance the receiver’s ability to interpret the messageas intended and can foster positive social orientations (especially maxim 4) that support effective communication. Finally, it is important to note that in the domains of written and oral presentation, crafting a clear message typically involves an iterative process of revision that requires self-regulation skills such as goal-setting, planning, and reflection.
Ситуационнаязадача № 18
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
To speculate about the future is one of the most basic qualities of man. It involves two aspects: one is to forecast what the future development will be and the other is to determine in what approximate period of time it is going to take place. To make such a prognosis means to learn from the past experience and to extrapolate the knowledge into the future. Recently, however, the rate of change has been so great as to make it difficult to learn from experience, at least as far as the time factor is concerned. To take but one example, a prediction of man's possible landing on the Moon around the turn of the century was made as late as 1961, only 8 years before the actual event! So, to be on the safe side, we had better leave time to take care of itself, and concentrate our attention on what the future may be like. There is yet another problem involved: are we to accept submissively any possible course of events, or are we to work for a future most suited for most people? The choice is to be made, at different levels, by every individual and by every society.
What is the nature of the scientific attitude, the attitude of the man or woman who studies and applies physics, biology, chemistry or any other science? What are their special methods of thinking and acting? What qualities do we usually expect them to possess? To begin with, we expect a successful scientist to be full of curiosity - he wants to find out how and why the universe works. He usually directs his attention towards problems which have no satisfactory explanation, and his curiosity makes him look for the underlying relationships even if the data to be analysed are not apparently interrelated. He is a good observer, accurate, patient and objective. Furthermore, he is not only critical of the work of others, but also of his own, since he knows man to be the least reliable of scienrific instruments.
And to conclude, he is to be highly imaginative since he often looks for data which are not only complex, but also incomplete.
Ситуационнаязадача № 19
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
Accounting for Social and Cultural Differences
In an increasingly global world, communicators often come from socially and culturally diverse backgrounds, presenting additional challenges in producing a message that will be interpreted as intended. In general, cultures can differ in relatively low-level aspects of communication, such as pacing and pausing of speech, or in high-level aspects, such as their use of indirect language, potentially leading to problems in communication across cultures. To cite one example, Chinese, Korean, and American cultures differ in their reliance on unstated context in communication and in their tolerance for confrontation. Recognizing and accounting for these cultural differences necessitate what is commonly referred to as intercultural communicative competence, or “the knowledge, motivation, and skills to interact effectively and appropriately with members of different cultures”. Numerous models of general intercultural competence have been proposed, highlighting skills such as maintaining awareness of one’s own cultural norms, knowledge of and curiosity about other cultures, recognizing cultural differences, and dealing with cultural uncertainty (Matveev, 2017). These intercultural skills are required for a sender to craft a message that will be interpreted as intended by a member of another culture and more generally to develop positive social relationships that support communication.
Selecting Appropriate Channels
Finally, a sender must be able to select the appropriate channel for communication. This is particularly important in the modern world, where communication channels proliferate: email, video chat, instant messaging, blogs, wikis, websites, and social media, in addition to more traditional forms of communication such as papers, presentations, or face-toface conversation. Each of these channels has advantages and disadvantages that must be reckoned with. For example, initiating an instant message can result in an immediate response but interrupts the receiver’s current activity, while emails often involve delayed response but do not necessarily interrupt current activities (Turner, Qvarfordt, Biehl, Golovchinsky, & Back, 2010). In general, the modern world involves a complex web of communication channels with different properties and usefulness in different contexts (Turner et al., 2010; Watson-Manheim &Bélanger, 2007). A sender must be able to navigate this complexity, choosing the most effective channel for each act of communication. To sum up, the goal of a sender is to produce a message likely to be interpreted by the receiver as intended so that the desired outcome might be achieved. To do so, senders must be able to identify desired outcomes, produce messages that most clearly convey meaning that might achieve those outcomes, model receivers’ minds, adhere to conventions, account for social and cultural diversity, and select the most appropriate channel for communication. These skills apply broadly across many communicative contexts and domains. As we will discuss next, some of these production skills are central to effectively receiving messages, as well, though message reception also has skills that apply to it uniquely.
Ситуационнаязадача № 20
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
Clear messages often make use of nonlinguistic message components. Face-to-face communication usually is accompanied by bodily gestures, which can emphasize what is said verbally, convey beliefs or feelings, regulate the dynamics of interpersonal communication, or even directly substitute the verbal information (Ekman & Friesen, 1969). The role of gesture in verbal communication has been recognized by many scholars (see Gordon, Druckman, Rozelle, and Baxter, 2006, for review). Additional nonlinguistic elements of messages come in the form of visual aids, common in - 11 - both spoken and written communication in educational and professional contexts. Expertise in communication through nonlinguistic visual modes is often termed “visual literacy” and has been recognized as an important component of communication in a wide variety of contexts (Dondis, 1974; Fransecky&Debes, 1972; Stokes, 2002). Modeling Others’ Minds Skills in producing messages are meant to support a sender’s ability to accurately convey meaning. However, as noted previously, meaning is conveyed via messages that are subject to interpretation by the receiver. A sender must possess skills required to model the mind of the receiver in order to produce a message that the receiver is likely to interpret as intended. For example, senders should avoid using terms that are unknown to the receiver or making claims that might offend the receiver (unless such offense is a desired outcome). In psychology, the ability to model others’ mental states is known as “theory of mind” and is a skill typically developed in early childhood (Bretherton, McNew, &Beeghly-Smith, 1981; Goldman, 2012). In communication, the notion of “audience analysis” captures the process by which a speaker or writer assesses receivers’ traits such as knowledge, beliefs, and culture in order to craft the most appropriate message (McQuail, 1997).
While audience analysis has been applied most commonly to mass communications, at its core it is applicable to all forms of communication. Adhering to Conventions A sender also must account for diversity in the conventions of different disciplines, professions, and communication channels. For example, the conventions governing the exchanging of text messages with friends allow for the usage of conventionalized slang and abbreviations (“textese”), a convention that sometimes is misapplied in other communicative contexts (e.g., Drouin, 2011). In academic writing, professional associations issue their own style manuals that provide extensive guidance on the norms of discourse in their disciplines (Hagge, 1997). Other norms might be implicit, though, such as the tendency for scientific writing to hedge claims in anticipation of opposing views (Hyland, 1996). Like science and academics, the business world has its own conventions (Ewald & Stine, 1983; Kramer & Hess, 2002), and individual organizations can vary their communication conventions over time in response to those norms’ perceived effectiveness in achieving business goals (Suchan, 2006). Recognizing and adhering to conventions is central to producing messages that are interpreted as intended.
Ситуационнаязадача № 21
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
Read the text «Higher Education in the United States». Find English equivalents for the following Russian words and expressions: выпускники, заявления, подаватьзаявление, аспирантура, завоеватьрепутацию,
Out of more than three million students who graduate from high school each year, about one million go on for higher education. A college at a leading university might receive applications from two percent of these high school graduates, and then accept only one out of every ten who apply. Successful applicants at such colleges are usually chosen on the basis of a) their high school records; b) recommendations from their high school teachers; c) their scores on the Scholastic Aptitude tests (SATs).
The system of higher education in the United States is complex. It comprises three categories of institutions: 1) the university, which may contain a) several colleges for undergraduate students seeking a bachelor’s (four-year) degree and b) one or more graduate schools for those continuing in specialized studies beyond the bachelor’s degree to obtain a master’s or a doctoral degree; 2) the technical training institutions at which high school graduates may take courses raging from six months to four years in duration and learn a wide variety of technical skills, from hair styling through business accounting to computer programming; 3) the two-year, or community college, from which students may enter many professions or may transfer to four-year colleges.
Any of these institutions might be either private or public, depending on the source of its funding. Some universities and colleges have, over time, gained reputations for offering particularly challenging courses and for providing their students with a higher quality of education. The factors determining whether an institution is one of the best or one of the lower prestige are quality of teaching faculty; quality of research faculties; amount of funding available for libraries, special programs, etc. (Et cetera - и такдалее); and the competence and number of applicants for admission, i.e. (id est–тоесть) how selective the institution can be in choosing its students. The more desirable institutions are generally more costly to attend (as the IVY League institutions, including Brown University, Columbia College, Cornell University (College of Arts and Sciences), Dartmouth College, Harvard Radcliffe, Princeton University, University of Pennsylvania, Yale University) and having graduated from one of them brings distinct advantages as the individual seeks employment opportunities.
SAT is a test in mathematics and verbal ability. It is taken in the 11-th and 12-th grade of high school two or three times. SAT is preceded by PSAT (preparatory), a test to give a student a warm-up exercise for the SAT and indicate their probable SAT scoring range. ACT - the American College Testing program is similar to SAT but scores social studies and the natural studies. The test is taken once when required by certain colleges and universities. Both tests (SAT, ACT) are wildly used in the admission process of US colleges and universities.
Ситуационнаязадача № 22
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
COMMUNICATION MODELS AND SKILLS
A recent review of the literature by van Ginkel and colleagues led to the formulation of seven design principles for developing oral presentation skill. Briefly stated, they are the following:
Establish clear learning objectives. „
Make presentations relevant to authentic activities in the discipline. „
Present expert and peer models of successful performance. „
Offer practice opportunities. „
Provide explicit and timely feedback. - 16 - „
Have peers provide formative feedback. „
Help students to self-assess, potentially by using video recordings.
The use of video-recorded practice can help facilitate many of these design principles. When students record themselves speaking on a clearly defined topic, watching the video can facilitate self-reflection about their performance, pinpointing areas to improve, building confidence, and practicing how to manage their own nervousness, particularly when they are provided rubrics to help self-assess. In addition, combining recordings with constructive feedback from peers or instructors has been found to improve presentation skill. Peer feedback appears to be particularly beneficial, as feedback from peers may be easier for a student to comprehend and to integrate into subsequent performance. In addition, the process of providing feedback allows learners to reflect on aspects that are critical to successful performance by comparing and contrasting successful and unsuccessful attempts and isolating the most critical elements. From a logistical standpoint, peer feedback can likely be provided more readily than feedback from an instructor, meaning that peer feedback can provide for more opportunities to practice presenting as well as more opportunities to receive feedback.
PRODUCTION SKILLS
Identifying Desired Outcomes
An act of communication is effective when it achieves one or more intended outcomes. Effective communication therefore begins with identifying outcomes, which requires the ability to reason about outcomes in a principled way with respect to any specific communicative act. The concepts of illocution and perlocution (Austin, 1962) are particularly useful for this purpose. Illocution refers to the function of an act of communication, for example to convey or request information, to assert something as true, or to promise to do something. (Searle, 1975, presents an influential taxonomy of illocutionary acts.) However, the illocution of a communicative act ultimately is distinct from the effect that the communicative act has on the receiver, which is known as the perlocution. For example, a sender promising to do the receiver a favor (illocution) might cause the receiver to feel a sense of gratitude (perlocution). Aristotle’s Rhetoric focused on persuasion, a very common perlocution in educational and professional contexts. An effective sender must target a specific illocution, perlocution, or both when communicating. For example, when delivering a presentation, one must decide if the presentation is intended simply to convey information or to make an argument. Once that is determined, the sender must craft a presentation likely to cause the audience to understand and remember the information (in the former case) or to be persuaded by the argument (in the latter case).
Ситуационнаязадача № 17
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
Crafting Clear Messages
A message’s content, structure, and delivery are all critical to a message’s success in conveying the intended meaning. „ Messages can be any combination of linguistic and nonlinguistic symbols. „ Messages are sent through channels or mediums, each with unique properties that affect messages’ forms and interpretations. „ Senders and receivers of messages play equally important roles in the successful conveying of meaning. „ Communication can be one-way or interpersonal. „ A communicator’s production and interpretation of messages are affected in part by emotions, beliefs, knowledge, social and cultural background, social orientation toward other communicators, and communication skills. The last point is important: Effective communication requires skills that support the successful conveying of meaning and, ultimately, the achieving of desired outcomes. A sender must be able to reliably craft and deliver messages that clearly convey the intended meaning and achieve the desired outcome. A receiver must possess the skills to attend to messages and to assign to those messages the meaning intended by the sender. Communicators must be able to apply these skills in a variety of communicative domains, across a multitude of channels, and among a diverse group of communicators, all the while maintaining a focus on the ultimate goals of the communicative process. The skills necessary for effective communication therefore are numerous and complex. In the following sections, we draw upon the principles above to identify a set of core communication skills. In order to be an effective communicator, one must possess skills that support both sending and receiving messages across the wide array of communicative domains and contexts encountered in life.
In addition to identifying the intended outcome, a sender must craft a message that clearly conveys a meaning that promotes that outcome. In the realm of message clarity, copious recommendations on clear writing have been made (see Gunning, 1952, and Young, 2002, for highly cited examples), and many of these recommendations can be applied to clarity in speech as well. At a minimum, message clarity depends upon employing appropriate vocabulary, grammar, and logical structures, but clarity does not rest solely on these factors. It also depends on pragmatics, or issues related to the broader context in which a message is situated. Grice’s (1975) maxims of conversational “cooperation” are perhaps the most influential ideas in pragmatics. The maxims state that a message should:
1. provide the exact amount of information required, no more or less;
2. present only relevant information;
3. be concise and avoid ambiguity and obscurity;
4. not present false information.
Adhering to these principles a sender can enhance the receiver’s ability to interpret the messageas intended and can foster positive social orientations (especially maxim 4) that support effective communication. Finally, it is important to note that in the domains of written and oral presentation, crafting a clear message typically involves an iterative process of revision that requires self-regulation skills such as goal-setting, planning, and reflection.
Ситуационнаязадача № 18
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
To speculate about the future is one of the most basic qualities of man. It involves two aspects: one is to forecast what the future development will be and the other is to determine in what approximate period of time it is going to take place. To make such a prognosis means to learn from the past experience and to extrapolate the knowledge into the future. Recently, however, the rate of change has been so great as to make it difficult to learn from experience, at least as far as the time factor is concerned. To take but one example, a prediction of man's possible landing on the Moon around the turn of the century was made as late as 1961, only 8 years before the actual event! So, to be on the safe side, we had better leave time to take care of itself, and concentrate our attention on what the future may be like. There is yet another problem involved: are we to accept submissively any possible course of events, or are we to work for a future most suited for most people? The choice is to be made, at different levels, by every individual and by every society.
What is the nature of the scientific attitude, the attitude of the man or woman who studies and applies physics, biology, chemistry or any other science? What are their special methods of thinking and acting? What qualities do we usually expect them to possess? To begin with, we expect a successful scientist to be full of curiosity - he wants to find out how and why the universe works. He usually directs his attention towards problems which have no satisfactory explanation, and his curiosity makes him look for the underlying relationships even if the data to be analysed are not apparently interrelated. He is a good observer, accurate, patient and objective. Furthermore, he is not only critical of the work of others, but also of his own, since he knows man to be the least reliable of scienrific instruments.
And to conclude, he is to be highly imaginative since he often looks for data which are not only complex, but also incomplete.
Ситуационнаязадача № 19
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
Accounting for Social and Cultural Differences
In an increasingly global world, communicators often come from socially and culturally diverse backgrounds, presenting additional challenges in producing a message that will be interpreted as intended. In general, cultures can differ in relatively low-level aspects of communication, such as pacing and pausing of speech, or in high-level aspects, such as their use of indirect language, potentially leading to problems in communication across cultures. To cite one example, Chinese, Korean, and American cultures differ in their reliance on unstated context in communication and in their tolerance for confrontation. Recognizing and accounting for these cultural differences necessitate what is commonly referred to as intercultural communicative competence, or “the knowledge, motivation, and skills to interact effectively and appropriately with members of different cultures”. Numerous models of general intercultural competence have been proposed, highlighting skills such as maintaining awareness of one’s own cultural norms, knowledge of and curiosity about other cultures, recognizing cultural differences, and dealing with cultural uncertainty (Matveev, 2017). These intercultural skills are required for a sender to craft a message that will be interpreted as intended by a member of another culture and more generally to develop positive social relationships that support communication.
Selecting Appropriate Channels
Finally, a sender must be able to select the appropriate channel for communication. This is particularly important in the modern world, where communication channels proliferate: email, video chat, instant messaging, blogs, wikis, websites, and social media, in addition to more traditional forms of communication such as papers, presentations, or face-toface conversation. Each of these channels has advantages and disadvantages that must be reckoned with. For example, initiating an instant message can result in an immediate response but interrupts the receiver’s current activity, while emails often involve delayed response but do not necessarily interrupt current activities (Turner, Qvarfordt, Biehl, Golovchinsky, & Back, 2010). In general, the modern world involves a complex web of communication channels with different properties and usefulness in different contexts (Turner et al., 2010; Watson-Manheim &Bélanger, 2007). A sender must be able to navigate this complexity, choosing the most effective channel for each act of communication. To sum up, the goal of a sender is to produce a message likely to be interpreted by the receiver as intended so that the desired outcome might be achieved. To do so, senders must be able to identify desired outcomes, produce messages that most clearly convey meaning that might achieve those outcomes, model receivers’ minds, adhere to conventions, account for social and cultural diversity, and select the most appropriate channel for communication. These skills apply broadly across many communicative contexts and domains. As we will discuss next, some of these production skills are central to effectively receiving messages, as well, though message reception also has skills that apply to it uniquely.
Ситуационнаязадача № 20
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
Clear messages often make use of nonlinguistic message components. Face-to-face communication usually is accompanied by bodily gestures, which can emphasize what is said verbally, convey beliefs or feelings, regulate the dynamics of interpersonal communication, or even directly substitute the verbal information (Ekman & Friesen, 1969). The role of gesture in verbal communication has been recognized by many scholars (see Gordon, Druckman, Rozelle, and Baxter, 2006, for review). Additional nonlinguistic elements of messages come in the form of visual aids, common in - 11 - both spoken and written communication in educational and professional contexts. Expertise in communication through nonlinguistic visual modes is often termed “visual literacy” and has been recognized as an important component of communication in a wide variety of contexts (Dondis, 1974; Fransecky&Debes, 1972; Stokes, 2002). Modeling Others’ Minds Skills in producing messages are meant to support a sender’s ability to accurately convey meaning. However, as noted previously, meaning is conveyed via messages that are subject to interpretation by the receiver. A sender must possess skills required to model the mind of the receiver in order to produce a message that the receiver is likely to interpret as intended. For example, senders should avoid using terms that are unknown to the receiver or making claims that might offend the receiver (unless such offense is a desired outcome). In psychology, the ability to model others’ mental states is known as “theory of mind” and is a skill typically developed in early childhood (Bretherton, McNew, &Beeghly-Smith, 1981; Goldman, 2012). In communication, the notion of “audience analysis” captures the process by which a speaker or writer assesses receivers’ traits such as knowledge, beliefs, and culture in order to craft the most appropriate message (McQuail, 1997).
While audience analysis has been applied most commonly to mass communications, at its core it is applicable to all forms of communication. Adhering to Conventions A sender also must account for diversity in the conventions of different disciplines, professions, and communication channels. For example, the conventions governing the exchanging of text messages with friends allow for the usage of conventionalized slang and abbreviations (“textese”), a convention that sometimes is misapplied in other communicative contexts (e.g., Drouin, 2011). In academic writing, professional associations issue their own style manuals that provide extensive guidance on the norms of discourse in their disciplines (Hagge, 1997). Other norms might be implicit, though, such as the tendency for scientific writing to hedge claims in anticipation of opposing views (Hyland, 1996). Like science and academics, the business world has its own conventions (Ewald & Stine, 1983; Kramer & Hess, 2002), and individual organizations can vary their communication conventions over time in response to those norms’ perceived effectiveness in achieving business goals (Suchan, 2006). Recognizing and adhering to conventions is central to producing messages that are interpreted as intended.
Ситуационнаязадача № 21
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
Read the text «Higher Education in the United States». Find English equivalents for the following Russian words and expressions: выпускники, заявления, подаватьзаявление, аспирантура, завоеватьрепутацию,
Out of more than three million students who graduate from high school each year, about one million go on for higher education. A college at a leading university might receive applications from two percent of these high school graduates, and then accept only one out of every ten who apply. Successful applicants at such colleges are usually chosen on the basis of a) their high school records; b) recommendations from their high school teachers; c) their scores on the Scholastic Aptitude tests (SATs).
The system of higher education in the United States is complex. It comprises three categories of institutions: 1) the university, which may contain a) several colleges for undergraduate students seeking a bachelor’s (four-year) degree and b) one or more graduate schools for those continuing in specialized studies beyond the bachelor’s degree to obtain a master’s or a doctoral degree; 2) the technical training institutions at which high school graduates may take courses raging from six months to four years in duration and learn a wide variety of technical skills, from hair styling through business accounting to computer programming; 3) the two-year, or community college, from which students may enter many professions or may transfer to four-year colleges.
Any of these institutions might be either private or public, depending on the source of its funding. Some universities and colleges have, over time, gained reputations for offering particularly challenging courses and for providing their students with a higher quality of education. The factors determining whether an institution is one of the best or one of the lower prestige are quality of teaching faculty; quality of research faculties; amount of funding available for libraries, special programs, etc. (Et cetera - и такдалее); and the competence and number of applicants for admission, i.e. (id est–тоесть) how selective the institution can be in choosing its students. The more desirable institutions are generally more costly to attend (as the IVY League institutions, including Brown University, Columbia College, Cornell University (College of Arts and Sciences), Dartmouth College, Harvard Radcliffe, Princeton University, University of Pennsylvania, Yale University) and having graduated from one of them brings distinct advantages as the individual seeks employment opportunities.
SAT is a test in mathematics and verbal ability. It is taken in the 11-th and 12-th grade of high school two or three times. SAT is preceded by PSAT (preparatory), a test to give a student a warm-up exercise for the SAT and indicate their probable SAT scoring range. ACT - the American College Testing program is similar to SAT but scores social studies and the natural studies. The test is taken once when required by certain colleges and universities. Both tests (SAT, ACT) are wildly used in the admission process of US colleges and universities.
Ситуационнаязадача № 22
Read and translate the text. Make 6 special and two general questions to the text. Write the annotation of the text.
COMMUNICATION MODELS AND SKILLS
A recent review of the literature by van Ginkel and colleagues led to the formulation of seven design principles for developing oral presentation skill. Briefly stated, they are the following:
Establish clear learning objectives. „
Make presentations relevant to authentic activities in the discipline. „
Present expert and peer models of successful performance. „
Offer practice opportunities. „
Provide explicit and timely feedback. - 16 - „
Have peers provide formative feedback. „
Help students to self-assess, potentially by using video recordings.
The use of video-recorded practice can help facilitate many of these design principles. When students record themselves speaking on a clearly defined topic, watching the video can facilitate self-reflection about their performance, pinpointing areas to improve, building confidence, and practicing how to manage their own nervousness, particularly when they are provided rubrics to help self-assess. In addition, combining recordings with constructive feedback from peers or instructors has been found to improve presentation skill. Peer feedback appears to be particularly beneficial, as feedback from peers may be easier for a student to comprehend and to integrate into subsequent performance. In addition, the process of providing feedback allows learners to reflect on aspects that are critical to successful performance by comparing and contrasting successful and unsuccessful attempts and isolating the most critical elements. From a logistical standpoint, peer feedback can likely be provided more readily than feedback from an instructor, meaning that peer feedback can provide for more opportunities to practice presenting as well as more opportunities to receive feedback.