The macrocontext is that part of the literary message which precedes the SO and which is exterior to it. (It is this type of context which is closest to context in its everyday meaning.) Since its decoding supposes a spatial orientation, we see that the phrase oriented linear segment in our preliminary definition applies to this context: it could not have applied to the microcontext. This characteristic permits the storing up of information which will ultimately modify the effect of the compound (microcontextfcontrast) SO.
3) Foregrounding is a literary device that emphasizes ideas and symbols through the use of attention-seeking linguistic techniques which either repeat content or break established patterns.

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  It’s a very general principle of artistic communication that a work of art in some way deviates from norms which we, as members of society, have learnt to expect in the medium used and that anyone who wishes to investigate the significance and value of a work of art must concentrate on the element of interest and surprise, rather than on the automatic pattern. Such deviations from linguistic or other socially accepted norms are labeled foregrounding, which invokes the analogy of a figure seen against a background (Leech,1968: 57).
  
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  In stylistics, the notion of foregrounding, a term borrowed from the Prague School of Linguistics, is used by Leech and Short (1981: 48) to refer to ‘artistically motivated deviation’.
  
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  The term foregrounding has its origin with the Czech theorist Jan Mukarovský: it is how Mukarovský's original term, aktualisace, was rendered in English by his first translator (Mukarovský, 1932/1964). It refers to the range of stylistic effects that occur in literature, whether at the phonetic level (e.g., alliteration, rhyme), the grammatical level (e.g., inversion, ellipsis), or the semantic level (e.g., metaphor, irony).
  

As Mukarovský pointed out, foregrounding may occur in normal, everyday language, such as spoken discourse or journalistic prose, but it occurs at random with no systematic design. In literary texts, on the other hand, foregrounding is structured: it tends to be both systematic and hierarchical. That is, similar features may recur, such as a pattern of assonance or a related group of metaphors, and one set of features will dominate the others (Mukarovský, 1964, p. 20), a phenomenon that Jakobson termed "the dominant" (1987, pp. 41-46)

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  The immediate effect of foregrounding is to make strange (ostranenie), to achieve defamiliarization. Shklovsky saw defamiliarization as accompanied by feeling: he noted, more precisely, that stylistic devices in literary texts "emphasize the emotional effect of an expression" (Shklovsky, 1917/1965, p. 9). And, Mukarovský concurs, "When used poetically, words and groups of words evoke a greater richness of images and feelings than if they were to occur in a communicative utterance" (1977, p. 73).
  

Foregrounding means making an image, symbol, or language a prominent or important feature. The device is used to estrange or defamiliarize the reader from the text and the content. Such disruptions in form and language help you experience fresh perspectives and responses to texts.

FUNCTIONS

The generalizing function of foregrounding consists in bringing to the foreground the most important themes, images, ideas and attitudes, revealing the general atmosphere and making the text into a coherent whole. Bringing forth something that must attract the reader's special attention foregrounding is motivated by the importance of what is emphasized, the emphasis in that case is stronger than that created by separate stylistic devices. 

1) Establishment of hierarchy of meanings and elements inside the text, that is emphasizing or foregrounding of the most important parts of a

message.

2) Providing cohesion and integrity of the text and at the same time segmenting the text for perception convenience: establishment of links between the parts of the text and its separate constituents.

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3) Putting in order the information due to which readers may decode unfamiliar elements of the code.

Foregrounding forms aesthetical context and fulfills a number of semantic functions, with expressiveness being one of them. Expressiveness is a property of the text or its part to convey a meaning with enhanced intensity and results in emotional or logical reinforcement, which can be either figurative or not.

Convergence as the term implies denotes a combination or accumulation of stylistic devices promoting the same idea, emotion or motive. Stylistic function is not the property and purpose of expressive means of the language as such. Any type of expressive means will make sense stylistically when treated as a part of a bigger unit, the context, or the whole text. It means that there is no immediate dependence between a certain stylistic device and a definite stylistic function.

A stylistic device is not attached to this or that stylistic effect. Therefore a hyperbole, for instance, may provide any number of effects: tragic, comical, pathetic or grotesque. Inversion may give the narration a highly elevated tone or an ironic ring of parody.

This «chameleon» quality of a stylistic device enables the author to apply different devices for the same purpose. The use of more than one type of expressive means in close succession is a powerful technique to support the idea that carries paramount importance in the author's view. Such redundancy ensures the delivery of the message to the reader.

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Types of Foregrounding

1. Coupling

2. Convergence

3. Defeated Expectancy (Low Predictability)

4. Salient Feature (Strong Position)

Foregrounding comprises both the extra-regularities and extra-deviations. Coupling belongs to the types based on extra-regularities. We have shown these extra-regularities on the level of composition and imagery, we have it in the same extract in versification and sound patterns. An easily recognized element of coupling here is the rhyme. The equivalence of elements in rhyme concerns the phonemic make-up, and the equivalence of position is determined by a systematic recurrence of similar sounds in similar positions within a stanza or line.

The type of foregrounding called "convergence" that was introduced by M. Riffa-terre, consists of an accumulation of several different stylistic devices serving one image or performing one common stylistic function. Convergence often takes very little space, although its irradiation may be very wide. Thus, the whole essence of the tragedy of Macbeth and its main theme of the struggle between evil and good is compressed in his first words: "So foul and fair a day I have not seen." The effect is based on inversion and on a rich epithet containing alliteration, developing an oxymoron into a paronomasia ("foul and fair"); the negative construction and the word "so" enhance the expressiveness. There is, moreover, an echoing effect because this phrase reiterates the spell of the three witches in the previous scene: "Fair is foul and foul is fair / Hover through the fog and filthy air." It is an accumulation of SDs promoting the same

idea, motive.

Defeated expectancy is a principle considered by some linguists (Ja-cobson, Riffaterre) as the basic principle of a stylistic function. Its use is not limited to some definite level or type of devices. The essence of the notion is connected with the process of decoding by the reader of the literary text.

The linear organization of the text mentally prepares the reader for the consequential and logical development of ideas and unfolding of the events. The normal arrangement of the text both in form and content is based on its predictability which means that the appearance of any element in the text is prepared by the preceding arrangement and choice of elements, e. g. the subject of the sentence will normally be followed by the predicate, you can supply parts of certain set phrases or collocation after you see the first element, etc.

Some element of the text receives prominence due to the interruption in the pattern of predictability.

Coupling is another technique that helps in decoding the message implied in a literary work. While convergence and defeated expectancy both focus the reader's attention on the particularly significant parts of the text coupling deals with the arrangement of textual elements (hat provide trie unity and cohesion of the whole structure. The notion of coupling was introduced by S. Levin in his work «Linguistic Structures in Poetry» in 1962 (40).

Coupling is more than many other devices connected with the level of the text. This method of text analysis helps us to decode ideas, their interaction, inner semantic and structural links and ensures compositional integrity.

Coupling is based on the affinity of elements that occupy similar po­sitions throughout the text. Coupling provides cohesion, consistency and unity of the text form and content.

Coupling is a deliberate repetition of similar elements in similar positions R. Jacobson: parallel constructions. S. Levin: universal character of coupling.

Coupling on every level of language • phonetic – rhyme, alliteration, assonance • lexical – synonyms, antonyms, derivatives, words belonging to one

semantic field • syntactical – anaphora, epiphora, polysyndeton.

There are two main means of foregrounding realization: strong positions of the text and schemes of textual organization. Strong positions (headline

beginning of the text final episode) of the text are beginning (including title, epigraph, prologue and first paragraph of the text) and ending of the text or a part of the text. As for schemes of textual organization, Arnold concentrates on the convergence of stylistic devices, key words repetition, defeated expectancy and coupling (term of S. Levin) or parallelism (term of R. Jakobson) (Arnold 2016: 222). It is necessary to stress that key textual meanings are usually foregrounded on different levels of the text and through a combination of means of foregrounding. The application of the principles of foregrounding to interpretation of the text instead of mere analysis of stylistic devices leads to more justified conclusions as all the types of foregrounding cover either the whole text or its considerable parts (ibid. 224). Arnold’s theory stands on the ground that all elements of the text, even their order in the text, are intentional and can give a clue to understanding of the author’s message.

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Thus, convergence often occurs in what is called the "strong position". The term is self-explanatory if we take into consideration that the position of an element in the text is of importance in bringing the logic or the beauty of what is said to the reader's attention. The elements may be made prominent by the fact that they stand out most effectively in the title, in the first line, or in the closure of the text. The great informational value of these parts is determined by psychological factors. It is quite natural, therefore, to find in these points some key image reinforced by convergence. This does not mean, of course, that there always is a convergence in these points.

The title plays an important part in providing a clue to the meaning of the whole, being the starting point of a chain of expectations that tune the reader's mind to what he perceives. The title may name the main characters, state their social roles, their relationships, the scene and the time of the action. The subject and the main idea may also be hinted at, either directly (The Man of Property) or by means of allusion (Of Mice and Men). ёThe type of foregrounding called "convergence" that was introduced by M. Riffa-terre, consists of an accumulation of several different stylistic devices serving one image or performing one common stylistic function. Convergence often takes very little space, although its irradiation may be very wide. Thus, the whole essence of the tragedy of Macbeth and its main theme of the struggle between evil and good is compressed in his first words: "So foul and fair a day I have not seen." The effect is based on inversion and on a rich epithet containing alliteration, developing an oxymoron into a paronomasia ("foul and fair"); the negative construction and the word "so" enhance the expressiveness. There is, moreover, an echoing effect because this phrase reiterates the spell of the three witches in the previous scene: "Fair is foul and foul is fair / Hover through the fog and filthy air." It is an accumulation of SDs promoting the same

idea, motive.


B. 1. Analyse the following texts and comment on the properties of stylistic function realized in them:

(1) Kenneth Rexroth

Lion

The lion is called the king

Of beasts. Nowadays there are

Almost as many lions

In cages as out of them.

If offered a crown, refuse.
Evaluative (irony)
(2) N. West

Autumn comes

And trees are shedding their leaves,

And Mother Nature blushes

Before disrobing.
Emotive
(3) Wee modest crimson tipped flow'r,

Thou's met me in an evil hour;

For I maun crash amang the stoure

Thy slender stem:

To spare thee now is past my pow'r

Thou bonnie gem.

Expressive
2. Give examples to illustrate different types of context:
1) The adjective heavy in isolation possesses the meaning "of great weight, weighty". When combined with the lexical group of words denoting natural phenomena as wind, storm, etc. it means "striking, following with force, abundant", e.g. heavy rain, wind, storm, etc. In combination with the words industry, arms, artillery and the like, heavy has the meaning "the larger kind of something as heavy industry, artillery".

He left his house at 6 in the morning to be on time for his flight (покинуть)

He missed his flight because he had accidentally left his passport in his bedroom (забыть)

The policemen dusted the crime scene for prints (посыпать или покрыть поверхность чем-то пылеобразным)

My mother is a clean freak; she dusts our tables and shelves at least twice a day (смахнуть пыль)
I made Peter study (to force)

My friend made a good teacher (to turn out to be)

Или

2) ‘It’s very much to be wished that some mothers would leave their daughters alone after marriage, and not be so violently affectionate.’(Ch. Dickens, “David Copperfield”) c) I despise its very vastness and power. It has the poorest millionaires, … the haughtiest beggars, … the lowest skyscrapers, the dolefulest pleasures of any town I ever saw. (O’Henry, 100 Selected Stories)

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3) Micro

Pope, Rape o f the Locli., II, 105-109: Whether the Nymph shall (...) stain her Honour, or he; new Brocade, (...) Or lose her Heart, or Necklace, at a Ball. (syllepsis: 12 the metaphorical meaning of the verb in the two contexts-stain her honour, lose her heart-makes the shift to its ordinary meaning unpredictable; this and the resulting forced parallels honour/brocade, heart/necklace impose maximal decoding).

Macro

My name is Harcourt Worters-not a well-known name if you go outside the City and my own country, but a name which/, where it is known/, carries/, I flatter myself/, some weight. (The disjunctions would not suffice to nullify the predictability of the word sequence, especially after carries which introduces a stereotype. What brings out the speaker's pompous, self- righteous vanity, what produces the contrast is the suspension of the

sentence after which.)
3. Analyse convergence in the following passages. Define the component parts of each convergence, state its function.

(1) Sara was a menace and a tonic, my best enemy; Rozzie was a disease, my worst friend. (J. Carry).
enemy – friend, worst – best, tonic – disease: best friend, worst enemy best enemy, worst friend. (The use of antonyms) Antithesis
(2) The Montana sunset lay between two mountains like a gigantic bruise from which dark arteries spread themselves over a poisoned sky. An immense distance under the sky crouched the village of Fish, minute, dismal and forgotten. (F.S. Fitzgerald).
gigantic bruise, immense distance - Hyperbola, minute, dismal – Litotes (comparison)
(3) Some say the world will end in fire,

Some say in ice,

From what I've tasted of desire

I hold with those who favor fire.

But if it had to perish twice

I think I know enough of hate

To say thatfor destruction ice

Is also great

And would suffice.
Some say, some say- Anaphora
(4) We plunged in and out of sun and shadow-pools, and joy, a glad-to-be-alive exhilaration, jolted through me like a jigger of nitrogen.
Epithet – exhilaration, joy, glad to be alive
(5) The owner, now at the wheel, was the essence of decent self-satisfaction; a baldish, largish, level-eyed man, rugged of neck but sleek and round of face - face like the back of a spoon bowl.
Comparison (irony)
(6) The fog comes on little cat feet.

It sits looking

over harbor and city

on silent haunches

and then moves on.
The metaphor shows that fog can be compared to a cat in a multitude of ways including its attitude, sound, motion, position, and intention. By comparing fog to a cat, the author is able to show that fog acts aloof; it silently invades towns through a slinking motion; and that it ultimately creates a sense of mystery. The power of this metaphor lies with its ability to communicate so much information with such a simple comparison.
4. Analyse defeated expectancy in the following examples:

(1) Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover everything except the obvious. (O. Wilde).
Oscor Wilde uses irony; he says that women have great instinct about things and at the same time explains that they do not even notice the obvious.
(2) There, as it should be, the druggest is a counselor, a confessor, an advisor, an able and willing missionary and mentor whose learning is respected, whose occult wisdom is venerated and whose medicine is often poured, untasted, into the gutter. (O. Henry).
The author tries to explain that the druggest is able to cure other people with words and not with drugs.
(3). On the basis of the books you read (stories, novels, poems) speak of the role of strong positions of the title, the beginning and the end of the text.
The author wants to say that stories are remembered (chosen) by the title, novels by the beginning of the text, and poems by the end.
STYLISTICS

SEMINAR 3

1. 
   1. Norm and variation. The notion of norm. The hierarchy of norms. Variations of the norm. Deviation from the norm.
   

2. Denotation and connotation as the basic opposition in linguostylistics. The structure of connotative meaning. Types of connotations: systemic and contextual (inherent and adherent), general and personal.

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