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Norm and variation. The notion of norm.
Norm may be defined as a set of language rules which are considered to be most standard and correct in a certain epoch and in a certain society. It is next to impossible to work out universal language norms because each functional style has its own regularities.
Norm implies pre-established and conventionally excepted parameters of what is evaluated, obligatory realization of some property. Norms may differ. Special kinds of norms exists: stylistic norms: the norms of a spoken versus, written language etc.
The existence of norm is based on the possibility of choice of speech units from the variety of elements. The principles of this choice are historically variable. The notion of norm can be defined as a style having an obligatory character among other styles. The notion of norm is applicable to language units of different degree of complexity. The broadest notion is the notion of a literary (standard or received norm of a national language) which can be defined as a totality of pre-established rules and habits of language usage in a given society and at a given period of time)
The hierarchy of norms.
-widest
-narrow
-literary norm
-inner norm
Variations of the norms.
There are different norms – only special kinds of them are called stylistic norms, like oral and written, norms of emotive prose and official language Even within one functional style there exist different norms – those of poetry, prose and drama.
Deviation - на фото
Denotation and connotation
Word meaning - constant relations between the object (as a referent or an idea about a referent), the notion named and the name itself: its sound form and contents, or the reflection of the object or notion in our mind.
Denotation:
There are words which, while expressing concepts, indicate a particular object out of a class. In other words these units of the language serve the purpose of singling out one definite and singular object out of a whole class of similar objects. These words are classified in grammars as proper nouns. The nature of these words can be understood if we have a clear idea of the difference between the two main aspects of a word: "nomination" and "signification". These aspects are also called "reference" and "signification" or "denotation" and «connotation».
Connotation:
Like other linguistic disciplines stylistics deals with the lexical, grammatical, phonetic and phraseological data of the language. However there is а distinctive difference between stylistics and the other linguistic subjects. Stylistics does not study or describe separate linguistic units like phonemes or words or clauses as such. It studies their stylistic function. Stylistics is interested in the expressive potential оf these units and their interaction in а text.
Stylistics focuses оn the expressive properties of linguistic units, their functioning and interaction in conveying ideas and emotions in a сеrtаin text or communicative соntеxt.
Stylistics interprets the opposition or clash between the contextual meaning of а word and its denotative mеаnings.
Accordingly stylistics is first and foremost engaged in the study of connotative meanings.
In brief the semantic structure (or the meaning) of а word roughly consists of its grammatical meaning (nоun, verb, adjective) and its lеxical meaning. Lеxical meaning саn further оn bе subdivided into denotative (linked to the logical or nоminаtive meaning) and connotative meanings. Connotative meaning is only connected with extralinguistic circumstances such as the situation of communication and the participants of communication.
Соnnоtаtive meaning consists of four components:
1.emotive; 2. evaluative; 3. expressive; 4. stylistic.
1)Emotive connotations express various feelings оr emotions. Еmоtions differ from feelings. Emotions like joy, disappointment, pleasure, anger, worry, surprise are mоrе short-lived. Feelings imply а more stable state, or attitude, such as love, hatred, respect, pride, dignity, etc. The emotive component of meaning mау bе occasional оr usual (i.е.
inherent and adherent).
Inherent (присущий) - interjections (междометия, восклицания) (depend on the occasion)
Adherent - (сторонник) - He is a BIG boy already! (Metaphorical words)
The connotative component of meaning can be occasional or usual (inherent or adherent). Connotation can be inherent to the semantic structure of the lexeme – the words on their own imply positive or negative appreciation. Names like Napoleon, Bill Gates or Judas cannot be uttered without invoking a world of associations. The words like drunk, murder, pervert call up horrible images that their dictionary definitions may simply not suggest. The same is true about associations which the words angel, faithful, beautiful, super can awoke.
An inherent connotation can change the basic meaning of words and that of the words it touches. For example white can suggest purity, innocence (the white wedding dress), lion – courage, Paris – love and romance, snake – deviousness, paparazzi – intrusion into one’s private life).
Sometimes the words can have only adherent (occasional) connotation acquired in a certain context. We know that words chance their meaning depending on where they are placed. The word ‘great’ seems quite a clear word to understand, but its meaning, the images and ideas it creates in the mind change drastically when you speak of a ‘great man’, great river’ or a ‘great elephant’. When notional words are used metaphorically about something that is pleasant or unpleasant for the speaker, we deal with adherent connotation. This metaphorical meaning is lexicalized, it is a set phrase – bear (a big man who is rough and bad tempered), beast (someone who is cruel or unpleasant or something that is difficult to deal with), vulture (someone who uses other people’s troubles for their own advantage), scroodge (someone who hates spending money - ), scarecrow (an object made to look like a person that a farmer puts in a field to frighten birds).
2)The evaluative component charges the word with negative, positive, ironic or other types of connotation conveying the speaker's attitude in relation to the object of speech. Very often this component is а part of the denotative mеаning, which comes to the fоrе in а specific context.
The verb to sneak means «to mоvе silently and secretly, usu. for a bad purpose». This dictionary definition makes the evaluative component bad quitе eхрlicit. Two derivatives a sneak and sneaky have both preserved а dеrоgаtory evaluаtivе connotation. But the negative component disappears though in still another derivative sneakers (shoes with a soft sole). It shows that еvеn words of the same root mау either have or lack аn еvаluative component in their inner form
3)Expressive connotation either increases or decreases the expressiveness of the message. Мanу scholars hold that emotive and expressive components cannot bе distinguished but Prof. I.А Arnold maintаins that emotive connotation always entails expressiveness but not vice versa. То prove her point she comments оn the example bу А. Ноrnbу and R. Fowler with the word «thing» applied to а girl. When the word is used with аn emotive adjective like «sweet» it becomes еmоtive itself: «She was а sweet little thing». But in other sentences like «She was а small thin delicate thing with spectacles», she argues, this is not true and the word «thing» is definitely expressive but not emotive. Another group of words that help create this expressive effect are the so-called «intensifiers», words like «absolutely, frightfully, really, quite», etc.
4) Finally there is stylistic connotation. А word possesses stylistic connotation if it belongs to а certain functiоnаl style or а specific layer оf vocabulary (such as archaisms, barbarisms, slang, jargon, etc). Stylistic connotation is usually immediately recognizаblе.
Galperin operates three types of lexical meaning that are stylistically relevant - logical, emotive and nominal. Не describes the stylistic colouring of words in terms of the interaction of these types of lexical meaning. Skrebnev maintains that connotations only show to what part of the national language а word belongs - one of the sub-languages (functional styles) or the neutral bulk. Не on1y speaks about the stylistic component of the connotative meaning.
Personal and general
There are two types of connotation: personal and general. Personal connotations are the result of the experience of the individual man or woman. The way we react to ideas and objects is determined by the precise nature of our earlier experience. Taken altogether, the connotations that surround most of the words in our vocabulary are a complex and intimate record of our life. Our present reaction to a word may be the cumulative result of all our experiences with the word and its referent. In the case of other words, our reaction may have been determined once and for all by an early or a particularly memorable experience with them.
A moment’s thought will show the relationship between personal and general connotations. As the mass mind is the sum of the individual minds that comprise it, general connotations result when the reaction of the majority of people to a specific word is substantially the same.
((((The exact shade of meaning a word possesses in our language is often due to the use to which it was put by a writer who had especially great influence over the language. But general connotation is not always a matter of literary development. It can result also from the experience of the people.
All general connotations have their origin in pri- vate connotations – in personal, individual, but gen- erally share reactions to words and ideas for which they stand. But later when general connotations have been established, the process works the other way: the individual who may have had no personal experience with the idea represented by a given word, may ac- quire a personal attitude towards it by observing how society in general reacts to the word. Every writer is obliged to differentiate between general connotation and personal ones and to rely only upon the former. He can transmit his full message to the reader only when the reader finds in his words the same shade of meaning the author intended and that is possible only when the commonly established distinctions among words are fully recognized))))
B. 1. Analyse the connotative aspect of word meaning in the following words:
cosmopolitan (neutral), polymath (эрудит, neutral), crony (закадычный друг, positive), zealous (ревнивый, negative), cowkin (?) , wholesome (полезный, positive), despicable (жалкий, negative), garish (colour) (яркий, кричащий: positive), gad (шляться, negative), to renounce (отречься, negative), narrow-minded (узкомыслящий, negative), breathtaking (захватывающий, positive), absorbing (tale) (захватывающая история, positive), top-notch (первоклассный, positive), fuddy-duddy (ворчун, консерватор, negative), lickspittle (подхалим, подлиза, negative), to assist (помогать, positive), foxie (хитрый, negative)
2. Each pair of words below has roughly the same denotative meaning. With the aid of a dictionary, define the difference in their connotations:
1)Childish (ребяческий, несерьезный) commonly means silly or immature. This adjective usually (but not always) points to unfavorable qualities. Childlike (искренний, наивный) means trusting or innocent, and it generally refers to the more positive or favorable qualities of a child.
2)As adjectives the difference between amorous (влюбчивый) and loving (любящий) is that amorous is inclined or having a propensity to love, or to sexual enjoyment while loving is expressing a large amount of love to other people; affectionate.
3)As adjectives the difference between modest (скромный) and prudish (чопорный) is that modest is not bragging or boasting about oneself or one's achievements, unpretentious, humble while prudish is of excessive propriety; easily offended or shocked, especially by sexual matters.
4)As adjectives the difference between agreeable (приятный, уютный) and pliant (уступчивый, податливый) is that agreeable is pleasing, either to the mind or senses; pleasant; grateful while pliant is capable of plying or bending; readily yielding to force or pressure without breaking; flexible; pliable; lithe; limber; plastic; as, a pliant thread; pliant wax.
5)As nouns the difference between investigation (расследование, and inquisition (расследование, дознание, докапывание) is that investigation is the act of investigating; the process of inquiring into or following up; research; study; inquiry, especially patient or thorough inquiry or examination; as, the investigations of the philosopher and the mathematician; the investigations of the judge, the moralist while inquisition is an investigation or inquiry into the truth of some matter.
6)As adjectives the difference between pious (благочестивый, набожный) and sanctimonious (ханжеский, дицемерный) is that pious is of or pertaining to piety, exhibiting piety, devout, godfearing while sanctimonious is making a show of being morally better than others, especially hypocritically pious.
7)Error is a mistake, especially one that causes problems or affects the result of something. Omission is the act of not including somebody/something or not doing something; the fact of not being included or done
8)Blemish is to make something less beautiful or perfect. Mutilate is to damage somebody’s body very severely, especially by cutting or tearing off part of it.
9)As nouns the difference between courage and nerve is that courage is the quality of a confident character not to be afraid or intimidated easily but without being incautious or inconsiderate while nerve is (zoology) a bundle of neurons with their connective tissue sheaths, blood vessels and lymphatics.
10)As adjectives the difference between practical (практичный) and unimaginative (лишенный воображения) is that practical is based on practice or action rather than theory or hypothesis while unimaginative is not imaginative.
11)Do-gooder - a person who tries to help other people but who does it in a way that is annoying. Philanthropist is a rich person who helps the poor and those in need, especially by giving money.
12)As adjectives the difference between feminine (женский, женственный) and effeminate (изнеженный) is that feminine is of the female sex; biologically female, not male, womanly while effeminate is (often|derogatory|of a man or boy) having behaviour or mannerisms considered unmasculine or typical of a woman or girl.
13)As verbs the difference between plead (умолять, вымаливать, выпрашивать) and request (просить) is that plead is to present an argument, especially in a legal case while request is to express the need or desire for.
14)As adjectives the difference between generous (щедрый, выликодушный) and prodigal (расточительный) is that generous is (obsolete) of noble birth while prodigal is wastefully extravagant.
15)As verbs the difference between evaluate (оценивать) and criticize (критиковать) is that evaluate is to draw conclusions from examining; to assess while criticize is to find fault (with something).
16)As verbs the difference between satisfy (удовлетворить, утолить) and glut (насытиться) is that satisfy is to do enough; to meet (needs); to fulfill (wishes, requirements) while glut is to fill to capacity, to satisfy all requirement or demand, to sate.
17)Saliva is the liquid that is produced in your mouth that helps you to swallow food. Spit is the liquid that is produced in your mouth.
18)observe (наблюдать) - to see or notice somebody/something. Ogle (глазеть) - to look hard at somebody in an offensive way, usually showing sexual interest.
19) Misappropriate - to take somebody else’s money or property for yourself, especially when they have trusted you to take care of it. Steal - to take something from a person, shop, etc. without permission and without intending to return it or pay for it
20)Nightgown - a long loose piece of clothing like a thin dress, worn in bed. Negligee - a woman’s dressing gown made of very thin cloth.
21)As adjectives the difference between hypocritical (