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§ 20. The formation of the Past Perfect.
1. The Past Perfect is formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb.
2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.
3. The contracted affirmative forms are:
I’d written
We’d written
The contracted negative forms are:
I hadn’t written
We hadn’t written
4. The negative-interrogative forms are:
{Had he not written?
Hadn’t he written?
{Had you not written?
Hadn’t you. written?
§ 21. The use of the Past Perfect.
1. The Past Perfect denotes an action completed before a certain moment in the past. The moment may be indicated by another past action expressed by a verb in the Past Indefinite or by an adverbial phrase.
They had walked only a few steps when a second group of tanks drew up on
the side road. (Heym)
After she had cried out, she felt easier. (Heym)
Fortunately the rain had stopped before we started. (Bennett)
By this time Cowperwood had written Aileen under no circumstances to try
to see him. (Dreiser)
The clock had not struck when he reached Gray’s Inn. (Dickens)
The definite moment can be understood from the situation.
The Squire had laid down his knife and fork, and was staring at his son in
amazement. (Eliot)
The definite moment need not necessarily be expressed in the same sentence as the action expressed by the Past Perfect.
Everybody noticed how sad she was the whole evening. She had got an
unpleasant letter. (Collins)
The Past Perfect is used with the conjunctions hardly... when, scarcely... when, no sooner... than.
They had no sooner arrived at this point than a most violent and startling
knocking was heard. (Jerome)
Nell had scarcely settled herself on a little heap of straw in the corner when
she fell asleep. (Dickens)
For the sake of emphasis the word order may be inverted.
No sooner had she laid herself down than she heard the prolonged trill of the
front-door bell. (Bennett)
The Past Perfect is frequently used with the adverbs just, already, yet.
Elsie, who had not yet assumed the white cap, was sweeping the stairs.
(Bennett)
2. Sometimes the Past Perfect does not denote priority but only the completion of the action.
He waited until she had found the latch-key and opened the door. (Bennett)
The Squire was purple with anger before his son had done speaking. (Eliot)
The Past Perfect is rendered in Russian by the past perfective
By this time Cowperwood had written Aileen under no circumstances to try
to see him. (Dreiser)
К этому времени Каупервуд написал Эйлин, чтобы она ни в коем случае
не пыталась с ним встретиться.
3. The Past Perfect is used to denote an action which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment. This use is called the Past Perfect Inclusive. The starting point or the whole period of duration of the action is indicated. To indicate the starting point the preposition
since is used, to indicate the whole period of duration for is used.
The Past Perfect Inclusive is used:
(a) with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form.
Examination convinced him that the deacon was dead — had been dead for
some time. (Eliot)
(b) in negative sentences. (In this case the Past Perfect Continuous is also possible, but not common. See § 32.)
Those two had not spoken to each other for three days and were in a state of
rage. (Bennett)
(c) with non-terminative verbs such as to work, to live, to study, to teach, to travel, to last etc. (In this case the Past Perfect Continuous is possible. See § 32.)
The ride had lasted about ten minutes, when the truck suddenly swerved to a
halt. (Heym)
The Past Perfect Inclusive is generally rendered in Russian by the past perfective.
He had not written a line since he arrived.
Он не написал ни строчки с тех пор, как приехал.
§ 22. The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect.
1. The Past Perfect is not used to denote a succession of actions. In this case the Past Indefinite is used.
The Past Indefinite is used with the conjunctions after, before, when if the relation between the actions approaches succession, i. e. when the idea of completion is of no importance.
He went on with his work after he had a short rest.
He had a short rest before he went on with his work.
When I wrote the letter, I posted it.
2. Verbs of motion and sense perception such as to come, to arrive, to return, to see, to hear, in adverbial clauses of time are generally used in the Past Indefinite and not in the Past Perfect. The actions are practically simultaneous.
When he (Val) came down... he found his mother scrupulous in a low
evening dress... (Galsworthy)
When he heard the first line of the poem, he recognized it at once.
When the completion of the action is emphasized the Past Perfect is used.
He knew the poem by heart when he had heard it several times.
THE FUTURE PERFECT
§ 23. The formation of the Future Perfect.
1. The Future Perfect is formed by means of the Future Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb.
2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.
3. The contracted affirmative forms are:
I’ll have worked
He’ll have worked
The contracted negative forms are:
I shan’t have worked
He won’t have worked
4. The negative-interrogative forms are:
{Will he not have worked?
Won’t he have worked?
{Shall we not have worked?
Shan’t we have worked?
§ 24. The use of the Future Perfect.
1. The Future Perfect denotes an action completed before a definite moment in the future.
I shall be back by six, and I hope you will have had a good sleep by that time.
(Marryat)
2. The Future Perfect can denote an action which will begin before a definite moment in the future, will continue up to that moment and will be going on at that moment. This use of the Future Perfect is called the
Future Perfect Inclusive.
The Future Perfect Inclusive is used with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form, in negative sentences, with non-terminative verbs such as to work, to live, to study, to teach etc.
I shall have been a teacher for 20 years by next May.
I shall have worked as a teacher for 20 years by next May.
THE FUTURE PERFECT IN THE PAST
§ 25. The formation of the Future Perfect in the Past.
1. The Future Perfect in the Past is formed by means of the Future Indefinite in the Past of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb.
2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.
3. The contracted affirmative forms, are:
I’d have worked
He’d have worked
The contracted negative forms are:
I shouldn’t have worked
He wouldn’t have worked
4. The negative-interrogative forms are:
{Should I not have worked?
Shouldn’t I have worked?
{Would he not have worked?
Wouldn’t he have worked?
§ 26. The use of the Future Perfect in the Past.
The Future Perfect in the Past is used to denote an action completed before a definite moment which was future from the point of view of the past.
I wondered whether they would have reached the place by noon.
(For detailed treatment see Chapter XVIII.)
THE PERFECT CONTINUOUS FORM
The Perfect Continuous form denotes an action in progress, whose duration before a definite moment in the present, past or future is expressed.
It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in one of the perfect tenses and Participle I of the notional verb.
THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
§ 27. The formation of the Present Perfect Continuous.
1. The Present Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Present Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.
2.In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.
3. The contracted affirmative forms are:
I’ve been working
He’s been working
You’ve been working
The contracted negative forms are:
I haven’t been working
He hasn’t been working
We haven’t been working
4. The negative-interrogative forms are:
{Has he not been working?
Hasn’t he been working?
{Have you not been working?
Haven’t you been working?
§ 28. The use оf the Present Perfect Continuous.
We distinguish two uses of the Present Perfect Continuous: the Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
1. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive is used to denote an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present and is still going on.
The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive is generally used with since (denoting the starting point of the action), for (denoting the whole period of duration), these two days, etc. (If the conjunction since introduces a clause, the verb in this clause is in the Past Indefinite.)
I have been looking out for your white dress for the last ten minutes.
(Bennett)
Ever since I saw you last I have been thinking, thinking. (Dreiser)
As has been stated above (see § 18, 3) the Present Perfect Inclusive is used to denote an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present and is still going on with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form, in negative sentences and with certain non-terminative verbs.
With verbs not admitting of the Continuous form the Present Perfect Inclusive is the only tense possible.
N o t e. — In colloquial English the verbs to want and to wish are often to be
found in the Perfect Continuous form, though, as stated above, they are not
used in the Continuous form.
I have been wishing to speak to you ever since you returned. (Collins)
With verbs in the negative form the Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive can be used, but it is far less common than the Present Perfect Inclusive.
With certain non-terminative verbs both the Present Perfect Inclusive and the Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive are used.
We have worked at the problem for several months. (The fact is emphasized.)
We have been working and working at the problem for months and I don’t
think we are likely to solve it. (Locke) (The process is emphasized.)
The Present Perfect Continuous’ Inclusive is rendered in Russian by the present:
I have been teaching at this school for 20 years.
Я преподаю в этой школе 20 лет.
2. The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive denotes an action which was recently in progress but is no longer going on at the present moment.
You are not well to-day. You look distressed. You have been weeping.
(Dickens)
The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive is used to express repeated actions in the past.
How have you been spending your money?
I have been buying pictures. (Locke)
I have been getting letters from him.
The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive is often used with an emotional colouring.
I suppose you have been telling lies again. (Marryat)
The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive is rendered in Russian by the past imperfective.
Your eyes are red. You have been crying.
У вас покраснели глаза. Вы плакали.
§ 29. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Continuous.
Students should take care not to mix up the Present Perfect Continuous and the Present Continuous: the Present Continuous is used to denote an action going on at the present moment, no previous duration is expressed. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive is used when the previous duration of the action is expressed.
I am reading Dombey and Son.
I have been reading Dombey and Son for three days.
There is no difference in the translation:
Я читаю роман «Домби и сын».
Я читаю роман «Домби и сын» три дня.
§ 30. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
The Present Perfect denotes a completed action while with the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive there is an implication of incompleteness.
He has made some experiments.
Он сделал несколько опытов.
He has been making experiments.
Он делал опыты.
Why are your lips black? I have been eating blackberries. I have eaten a
whole plateful.
Я ел чернику. Я съел целую тарелку.
She is walking up and down the room thinking of the letter she has been
writing and wondering how she should finish it.
She is going to post the letter she has just written.
THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
§ 31. The formation of the Past Perfect Continuous.
1. The Past Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Past Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.
2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.
3. The contracted affirmative forms are:
I’d been writing
She’d been writing
The contracted negative forms are:
I hadn’t been writing
We hadn’t been writing
4. The negative-interrogative forms are:
{Had he not been writing?
Hadn’t he been writing?
{Had you not been writing?
Hadn’t you been writing?
§ 32. The use of the Past Perfect Continuous.
We distinguish two uses of the Past Perfect Continuous: the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
1. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive denotes an action which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment. Either the starting point of the action is indicated or the whole period of duration. The preposition for is used to denote the whole period of duration. Since is used to indicate the starting point of the action.
We could not go out because it had been raining since early morning.
We could not go out because it had been raining for two hours.
He had been entertaining at restaurants for thirty years and he knew how to
assure the smooth passage of the meal. (Bennett)
As has been stated above (see § 21), the Past Perfect Inclusive is used to express an action which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment, with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form, in negative sentences and with certain non-terminative verbs.
With verbs not admitting of the Continuous form the Past Perfect Inclusive is the only tense possible.
In negative sentences the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive can be used, but it is far less common than the Past Perfect Inclusive.
With certain non-terminative verbs both the Past Perfect Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive are used.
1. The Past Perfect is formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb.
2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.
| Affirmative | Interrogative | Negative |
| I had worked He had worked She had worked We had worked You had worked They had worked | Had I worked? Had he worked? Had she worked? Had we worked? Had you worked? Had they worked? | I had not worked He had not worked She had not worked We had not worked You had not worked They had not worked |
3. The contracted affirmative forms are:
I’d written
We’d written
The contracted negative forms are:
I hadn’t written
We hadn’t written
4. The negative-interrogative forms are:
{Had he not written?
Hadn’t he written?
{Had you not written?
Hadn’t you. written?
§ 21. The use of the Past Perfect.
1. The Past Perfect denotes an action completed before a certain moment in the past. The moment may be indicated by another past action expressed by a verb in the Past Indefinite or by an adverbial phrase.
They had walked only a few steps when a second group of tanks drew up on
the side road. (Heym)
After she had cried out, she felt easier. (Heym)
Fortunately the rain had stopped before we started. (Bennett)
By this time Cowperwood had written Aileen under no circumstances to try
to see him. (Dreiser)
The clock had not struck when he reached Gray’s Inn. (Dickens)
The definite moment can be understood from the situation.
The Squire had laid down his knife and fork, and was staring at his son in
amazement. (Eliot)
The definite moment need not necessarily be expressed in the same sentence as the action expressed by the Past Perfect.
Everybody noticed how sad she was the whole evening. She had got an
unpleasant letter. (Collins)
The Past Perfect is used with the conjunctions hardly... when, scarcely... when, no sooner... than.
They had no sooner arrived at this point than a most violent and startling
knocking was heard. (Jerome)
Nell had scarcely settled herself on a little heap of straw in the corner when
she fell asleep. (Dickens)
For the sake of emphasis the word order may be inverted.
No sooner had she laid herself down than she heard the prolonged trill of the
front-door bell. (Bennett)
The Past Perfect is frequently used with the adverbs just, already, yet.
Elsie, who had not yet assumed the white cap, was sweeping the stairs.
(Bennett)
2. Sometimes the Past Perfect does not denote priority but only the completion of the action.
He waited until she had found the latch-key and opened the door. (Bennett)
The Squire was purple with anger before his son had done speaking. (Eliot)
The Past Perfect is rendered in Russian by the past perfective
By this time Cowperwood had written Aileen under no circumstances to try
to see him. (Dreiser)
К этому времени Каупервуд написал Эйлин, чтобы она ни в коем случае
не пыталась с ним встретиться.
3. The Past Perfect is used to denote an action which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment. This use is called the Past Perfect Inclusive. The starting point or the whole period of duration of the action is indicated. To indicate the starting point the preposition
since is used, to indicate the whole period of duration for is used.
The Past Perfect Inclusive is used:
(a) with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form.
Examination convinced him that the deacon was dead — had been dead for
some time. (Eliot)
(b) in negative sentences. (In this case the Past Perfect Continuous is also possible, but not common. See § 32.)
Those two had not spoken to each other for three days and were in a state of
rage. (Bennett)
(c) with non-terminative verbs such as to work, to live, to study, to teach, to travel, to last etc. (In this case the Past Perfect Continuous is possible. See § 32.)
The ride had lasted about ten minutes, when the truck suddenly swerved to a
halt. (Heym)
The Past Perfect Inclusive is generally rendered in Russian by the past perfective.
He had not written a line since he arrived.
Он не написал ни строчки с тех пор, как приехал.
§ 22. The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect.
1. The Past Perfect is not used to denote a succession of actions. In this case the Past Indefinite is used.
The Past Indefinite is used with the conjunctions after, before, when if the relation between the actions approaches succession, i. e. when the idea of completion is of no importance.
He went on with his work after he had a short rest.
He had a short rest before he went on with his work.
When I wrote the letter, I posted it.
2. Verbs of motion and sense perception such as to come, to arrive, to return, to see, to hear, in adverbial clauses of time are generally used in the Past Indefinite and not in the Past Perfect. The actions are practically simultaneous.
When he (Val) came down... he found his mother scrupulous in a low
evening dress... (Galsworthy)
When he heard the first line of the poem, he recognized it at once.
When the completion of the action is emphasized the Past Perfect is used.
He knew the poem by heart when he had heard it several times.
THE FUTURE PERFECT
§ 23. The formation of the Future Perfect.
1. The Future Perfect is formed by means of the Future Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb.
2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.
| Affirmative | Interrogative | Negative |
| I shall have worked He will have worked She will have worked We shall have worked You will have worked They will have worked | Shall I have worked? Will he have worked? Will she have worked? Shall we have worked? Will you have worked? Will they have worked? | I shall not have worked He will not have worked She will not have worked We shall not have worked You will not have worked They will not have worked |
3. The contracted affirmative forms are:
I’ll have worked
He’ll have worked
The contracted negative forms are:
I shan’t have worked
He won’t have worked
4. The negative-interrogative forms are:
{Will he not have worked?
Won’t he have worked?
{Shall we not have worked?
Shan’t we have worked?
§ 24. The use of the Future Perfect.
1. The Future Perfect denotes an action completed before a definite moment in the future.
I shall be back by six, and I hope you will have had a good sleep by that time.
(Marryat)
2. The Future Perfect can denote an action which will begin before a definite moment in the future, will continue up to that moment and will be going on at that moment. This use of the Future Perfect is called the
Future Perfect Inclusive.
The Future Perfect Inclusive is used with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form, in negative sentences, with non-terminative verbs such as to work, to live, to study, to teach etc.
I shall have been a teacher for 20 years by next May.
I shall have worked as a teacher for 20 years by next May.
THE FUTURE PERFECT IN THE PAST
§ 25. The formation of the Future Perfect in the Past.
1. The Future Perfect in the Past is formed by means of the Future Indefinite in the Past of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb.
2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.
| Affirmative | Interrogative |
| I should have worked He would have worked She would have worked We should have worked You would have worked They would have worked | Should I have worked? Would he have worked? Would she have worked? Should we have worked? Would you have worked? Would they have worked? |
| Negative |
| I should not have worked He would not have worked She would not have worked We should not have worked You would not have worked They would not have worked |
3. The contracted affirmative forms, are:
I’d have worked
He’d have worked
The contracted negative forms are:
I shouldn’t have worked
He wouldn’t have worked
4. The negative-interrogative forms are:
{Should I not have worked?
Shouldn’t I have worked?
{Would he not have worked?
Wouldn’t he have worked?
§ 26. The use of the Future Perfect in the Past.
The Future Perfect in the Past is used to denote an action completed before a definite moment which was future from the point of view of the past.
I wondered whether they would have reached the place by noon.
(For detailed treatment see Chapter XVIII.)
THE PERFECT CONTINUOUS FORM
The Perfect Continuous form denotes an action in progress, whose duration before a definite moment in the present, past or future is expressed.
It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in one of the perfect tenses and Participle I of the notional verb.
THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
§ 27. The formation of the Present Perfect Continuous.
1. The Present Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Present Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.
2.In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.
| Affirmative | Interrogative |
| I have been working | Have I been working? |
| He has been working | Has he been working? |
| She has been working | Has she been working? |
| We have been working | Have we been working? |
| You have been working | Have you been working? |
| They have been working | Have they been working? |
| Negative |
| I have not been working |
| He has not been working |
| She has not been working |
| We have not been working |
| You have not been working |
| They have not been working |
3. The contracted affirmative forms are:
I’ve been working
He’s been working
You’ve been working
The contracted negative forms are:
I haven’t been working
He hasn’t been working
We haven’t been working
4. The negative-interrogative forms are:
{Has he not been working?
Hasn’t he been working?
{Have you not been working?
Haven’t you been working?
§ 28. The use оf the Present Perfect Continuous.
We distinguish two uses of the Present Perfect Continuous: the Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
1. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive is used to denote an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present and is still going on.
The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive is generally used with since (denoting the starting point of the action), for (denoting the whole period of duration), these two days, etc. (If the conjunction since introduces a clause, the verb in this clause is in the Past Indefinite.)
I have been looking out for your white dress for the last ten minutes.
(Bennett)
Ever since I saw you last I have been thinking, thinking. (Dreiser)
As has been stated above (see § 18, 3) the Present Perfect Inclusive is used to denote an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present and is still going on with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form, in negative sentences and with certain non-terminative verbs.
With verbs not admitting of the Continuous form the Present Perfect Inclusive is the only tense possible.
N o t e. — In colloquial English the verbs to want and to wish are often to be
found in the Perfect Continuous form, though, as stated above, they are not
used in the Continuous form.
I have been wishing to speak to you ever since you returned. (Collins)
With verbs in the negative form the Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive can be used, but it is far less common than the Present Perfect Inclusive.
With certain non-terminative verbs both the Present Perfect Inclusive and the Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive are used.
We have worked at the problem for several months. (The fact is emphasized.)
We have been working and working at the problem for months and I don’t
think we are likely to solve it. (Locke) (The process is emphasized.)
The Present Perfect Continuous’ Inclusive is rendered in Russian by the present:
I have been teaching at this school for 20 years.
Я преподаю в этой школе 20 лет.
2. The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive denotes an action which was recently in progress but is no longer going on at the present moment.
You are not well to-day. You look distressed. You have been weeping.
(Dickens)
The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive is used to express repeated actions in the past.
How have you been spending your money?
I have been buying pictures. (Locke)
I have been getting letters from him.
The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive is often used with an emotional colouring.
I suppose you have been telling lies again. (Marryat)
The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive is rendered in Russian by the past imperfective.
Your eyes are red. You have been crying.
У вас покраснели глаза. Вы плакали.
§ 29. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Continuous.
Students should take care not to mix up the Present Perfect Continuous and the Present Continuous: the Present Continuous is used to denote an action going on at the present moment, no previous duration is expressed. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive is used when the previous duration of the action is expressed.
I am reading Dombey and Son.
I have been reading Dombey and Son for three days.
There is no difference in the translation:
Я читаю роман «Домби и сын».
Я читаю роман «Домби и сын» три дня.
§ 30. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
The Present Perfect denotes a completed action while with the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive there is an implication of incompleteness.
He has made some experiments.
Он сделал несколько опытов.
He has been making experiments.
Он делал опыты.
Why are your lips black? I have been eating blackberries. I have eaten a
whole plateful.
Я ел чернику. Я съел целую тарелку.
She is walking up and down the room thinking of the letter she has been
writing and wondering how she should finish it.
She is going to post the letter she has just written.
THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
§ 31. The formation of the Past Perfect Continuous.
1. The Past Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Past Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.
2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.
| Affirmative | Interrogative | Negative |
| I had been writing | Had I been writing? | I had not been writing |
| He had been writing | Had he been writing? | He had not been writing |
| She had been writing | Had she been writing? | She had not been writing |
| We had been writing | Had we been writing? | We had not been writing |
| You had been writing | Had you been writing? | You had not been writing |
| They had been writing | Had they been writing? | They had not been writing |
3. The contracted affirmative forms are:
I’d been writing
She’d been writing
The contracted negative forms are:
I hadn’t been writing
We hadn’t been writing
4. The negative-interrogative forms are:
{Had he not been writing?
Hadn’t he been writing?
{Had you not been writing?
Hadn’t you been writing?
§ 32. The use of the Past Perfect Continuous.
We distinguish two uses of the Past Perfect Continuous: the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
1. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive denotes an action which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment. Either the starting point of the action is indicated or the whole period of duration. The preposition for is used to denote the whole period of duration. Since is used to indicate the starting point of the action.
We could not go out because it had been raining since early morning.
We could not go out because it had been raining for two hours.
He had been entertaining at restaurants for thirty years and he knew how to
assure the smooth passage of the meal. (Bennett)
As has been stated above (see § 21), the Past Perfect Inclusive is used to express an action which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment, with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form, in negative sentences and with certain non-terminative verbs.
With verbs not admitting of the Continuous form the Past Perfect Inclusive is the only tense possible.
In negative sentences the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive can be used, but it is far less common than the Past Perfect Inclusive.
With certain non-terminative verbs both the Past Perfect Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive are used.