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I spoke to the station-master and also to the innkeeper of the village. Both of
them assured me that he (my friend) had gone for a voyage round the world.
(Conan Doyle)
§ 4. Indirect questions.
Word order in an indirect question is the same as in a statement. An indirect general question is introduced by the conjunction if or whether.
| I said to her, “Have you lived here long?” | I asked her if she had lived there long. |
She asked if she knew him. (Bennett)
An indirect special question is introduced by the same adverb or pronoun that introduces a direct question.
| I said to her, “Where do you live?” | I asked her where she lived. |
I asked her where she was going and where her friends were. (Ch. Bronte)
If a direct question to the subject contains the link verb to be, the direct order of words is not always strictly observed.
| He asked, “Who is that man?” | He asked | {who the man was who was the man. |
The direct question What is the matter? can be converted in two ways:
He asked what was the matter.
He asked what the matter was.
Indirect questions are generally introduced by the verb to ask. In more official style the verb to inquire is used.
| She called at the office and said, “When does the secretary usually come?” | She called at the office and inquired when the secretary usually came. |
If the person addressed is mentioned, the verb to inquire is used with the preposition of.
This occurs in bookish style only.
| She said to him, “Where does Mrs. Brown live?” | She inquired of him where Mrs. Brown lived. |
In rendering answers the verbs to answer and to reply are generally used.
Occasionally, answers are rendered in the following way: His reply (answer) was that.., He said in reply... This is not colloquial.
§ 5. Indirect orders and requests.
An order or a request in indirect speech is expressed by an infinitive:
| She said to him, “Open the window (do not open the window).” | She told him to open the window (not to open the window). |
| She said to him, “Please, open the window (do not open the window).” | She asked him to open the window (not to open the window). |
The choice of the verb is determined by the character of the order (request).
The verb most commonly used to introduce indirect orders is the verb to tell; the verb to order is frequently used, occasionally also the verb to command.
The verb to tell corresponds to the Russian сказать, чтобыand велеть; to order and to command correspond to приказать.
| Mr. Bumble said to Oliver, “Bow to the board.” | Mr. Bumble ordered Oliver to bow to the board. |
| The officer said to the soldiers, “Stop!” | The officer commanded the soldiers to stop. |
The verb to request is used in official style, chiefly in the Passive Voice. It is best rendered in Russian by предложить.
The verb to request introduces rather a veiled order than a request.
| The ticket collector said to the passenger, “Produce your ticket.” | The ticket collector requested (предложил) the passenger to produce his ticket. or: The passenger was requested to produce his ticket. |
Unemotional requests are usually introduced by the verb to ask.
| He said to a passer-by, “Will you show me the way to the theatre?” | He asked a passer-by to show him the way to the theatre. |
The verb to beg introduces a request somewhat more emotional.
| The child said to his mother, “Do take me to the circus!” | The child begged his mother to take him to the circus. |
Very often, however, it is used in the same meaning as the verb to ask, only it is more polite:
| He said to the visitor, “Will you walk in?” | He begged the visitor to walk in. |
Emotional (emphatic) requests are introduced by the verbs to implore to entreat to beseech (умолять).
| Eliza said to the stranger, “Do save my child!” | Eliza implored the stranger to save her child. |
The verb to urge introduces a request made with great insistence.
It corresponds to the Russian настаивать, уговаривать.
| The mother said to her son, “Do take care of yourself!” | The mother urged her son to take care of himself. |
As is seen from the above examples, in converting requests beginning with the emphatic do, we use the verbs to implore, to entreat, to beseech, to urge.
§ 6. Indirect offers, suggestions, and advice.
When converting offers and suggestions into indirect speech, we use the verbs to offer and to suggest. There is a difference between these two verbs, though both are rendered in Russian by ‘предложить’: the person who makes an offer intends to do the action himself, and the action is an act of kindness. A suggestion may also be an act of kindness, but not necessarily; the person who makes a suggestion may or may not intend to do the action himself.
| He said to her, “Shall I fetch you a glass of water?” She said, “Do, please.” (“No, don’t trouble.”) | He offered to fetch her a glass of water and she accepted the offer (declined the offer). |
| He said to her, “Suppose we go there together?” She said, “Very well.” (“No, I would rather you went alone.”) | He suggested that they should go there together and she consented (refused). |
N o t e. — If the verb to suggest is followed by a subordinate clause. The
predicate of the subordinate clause is expressed by a verb in the analytical
form of the Subjunctive Mood with the auxiliary
should.
Sentences expressing advice are converted into indirect speech by means of the verb to advise.
| He said to them, “You had better take a taxi, you may be late.” | He advised them to take a taxi, as otherwise they might be late. |
§ 7. Indirect exclamations.
When exclamations are converted into indirect speech, it is not so much the verb as the adverbial modifier which shows the character of the exclamation — whether it expresses joy, sorrow, surprise, etc.
| She said, “How pleasant! Jane is going to spend a week with us!” | She cried joyfully(with joy, delightedly) that Jane was going to spend a week with them. |
| She said, “I am so sorry! Jane is leaving us!” | She said sadly(with deep sadness, sorrowfully) that Jane was leaving them. |
| She said, “I am sure we’ll never meet again.” | She said regretfully she was sure they would never meet again. |
| She said to them, “I’m sure you’ll soon forget me.” | She said with bitterness that she knew (was sure) they would soon forget her. |
| She said to him, “You are telling a lie!” | She cried indignantly (with indignation) that he was telling a lie. |
| She said to him, “Do you mean to say you’ve already read all the books?” | She asked in surprise if he had really read all the books. |
| She said to him, “Excuse me for disturbing you.” | She apologized (to him) for disturbing him. |
| She said to him, “Beg your pardon, I’ve forgotten to bring you the book.” | She begged his pardon for having forgotten to bring the book. |
| She said to him, “Do forgive me for what I’ve done.” | She begged his forgiveness (implored him to forgive her) for what she had done. |
| She said to them, “Thank you for your help.” | She thanked them (expressed her gratitude to them) for their help. |
§ 8. Greetings and leave-taking in indirect speech.
When converting greetings and leave-taking into indirect speech, we use such verbs as to greet, to welcome, etc.
| She said to them, “How do you do?” | She greeted them. |
| He said to them, “Happy to see you at my place.” | He welcomed them. |
| He said to them, “Good-bye!” | He bade them good-bye. |
| He said to them, “Good night!” | He wished them good night. |
Chapter XX
PUNCTUATION
§ 1. The stops show the grammatical relations between words, phrases, clauses, and sentences; besides they serve to emphasize particular words and to indicate intonation. Thus the use of stops is mainly regulated by syntactical relations: the structure of the sentence (simple, compound, complex), the function of the word or word-group in a sentence or clause, the way coordinate clauses are linked, and the types of subordinate clauses.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
To separate different parts of the sentence, the following rules are observed:
§ 2. With homogeneous members either a comma or no stop whatever is used.
1. A comma is used to separate homogeneous members joined asyndetically.
The punishment cell was a dark, damp, filthy hole. (Voynich)
She shook her head, dried the dishes herself, sat down with some mending.
(Cronin)
Her breathing was slow, tortured. (Maltz)
2. A comma is used after each of several homogeneous members if the last is joined by the conjunction and.
The captain, the squire, and I were talking matters over in the cabin.
(Stevenson)
He lighted his cigarette, said good night, and went on. (London)
N o t e. — The comma before the last of the homogeneous members can be
omitted.
3. If two homogeneous members are joined by the conjunction and, no comma is used.
She nodded and smiled. (Heym)
He went“ out heavily and shut the door behind him. (Abrahams)
4. If there are several homogeneous members and each of them is joined to the preceding by the conjunction and or nor, they may or may not be separated by commas.
Em’ly, indeed, said little all the evening; but she looked, and listened, and her
face got animated, and she was charming. (Dickens)
She was not brilliant, nor witty, nor wise overmuch, nor extraordinary
handsome. (Thackeray)
5. A comma is used to separate homogeneous members joined by the conjunction but and the correlative conjunction not only... but also.
He had been always about to paint a masterpiece, but had never yet begun it.
(O. Henry)
Not only hope, but confidence has been restored. (Nesfield)
6. A comma is used to separate homogeneous members going in pairs.
Between halts and stumbles, jerks and lurches, locomotion had at times
seemed impossible. (London)
They had forgotten time and place, and life and death. (Voynich)
§ 3. With detached members of the sentence either a comma or a dash is used.
1. To separate a loose apposition a comma or a dash is used. The latter is less common.
He, Martin Eden, was a better man than that fellow. (London)
The old gentleman, her father, was always dabbling in speculation.
(Thackeray)
To think that Johnnie — my best friend — should have acted so meanly.
(Bennett)
2. To separate all types of detached adverbial modifiers a comma is used.
The Chuzzlewit family was, in the very earliest times, closely connected with
agricultural interest. (Dickens)
It being then just dinner-time, we went first into the great kitchen. (Dickens)
Away went George, his nerves quivering with excitement at the news so long
looked for. (Thackeray)
Mr. Micawber sat in his elbow-chair, with his eyebrows raised. (Dickens)
Old Jolyon had risen, and, cigar in mouth, went to inspect the group.
(Galsworthy)
He drew his hands away, shivering. (Voynich)
Poor Jemima trotted off, exceedingly flurried and nervous. (Thackeray)
The people, seeing my empty carriage, would rush for it. (Jerome)
3. To separate detached attributes a comma is used.
There are some truths, cold, bitter, tainting truths. (Dickens)
Here we have a remark, at once consistent, clear, natural. (Dickens)
4. To separate detached objects a comma is used.
Maggie, with a large book on her lap, shook her heavy hair. (Eliot)
But instead of the print, he seemed to see his wife. (Galsworthy)
Sometimes a dash is used.
§ 4. To separate parenthetical words, groups of words, and clauses a comma, a dash, or brackets may be used. The comma is the most usual.
To occupy her mind, however, she took the jobs given her. (Galsworthy)
In fact, she marked the change in his face with satisfaction. (London)
As for my mother, both her brothers were policemen. (Lindsay)
She sang a foolish song of Gustave Charpentier’s — a song born dead — and
she sang it sentimentally. (Bennett)
To the hired butler (for Roger only kept maids) she spoke about the wine.
(Galsworthy)
§ 5. To separate interjections a comma or a note of exclamation may be used.
Oh, Doreen didn’t know anything about it. (Cusack)
Ah! That’s the way to make the money. (Cusack)
§ 6. To separate direct address a comma is used.
Arthur, have you thought what you are saying? (Voynich)
And run in to see me, my lad, when you have time any evening. (Voynich)
N o t e. — It should be borne in mind that a comma (or a colon) and not a note
of exclamation is used in salutation in letters.
My dear Jon, we have been here now a fortnight. (Galsworthy)
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
To separate coordinate clauses the following rules on the use of stops are observed.
§ 7. Coordinate clauses joined asyndetically are always separated by a stop.
The most usual stop is the semicolon.
Arthur looked at his watch; it was nine o’clock. (Voynich)
The policeman took no notice of them; his feet were planted apart on the strip
of crimson carpet stretched across the pavement; his face, under the helmet,
wore the same stolid, watching look as theirs. (Galsworthy)
A colon or a dash may be used when the second coordinate clause serves to explain the first. They serve to express the relations which a conjunction would express.
Breakfast over, Aunt Polly had family worship: it began with a prayer built
from the ground up of solid courses of scriptural quotations. (Twain)
Ellsworth advised a triangular piano — the square shapes were so
inexpressibly wearisome to the initiated. (Dreiser)
A comma is used to separate coordinate clauses when the connection between them is very close.
A fly settled on his hair, his breathing sounded heavy in the drowsy silence,
his upper lip under the white moustache puffed in and out. (Galsworthy)
§ 8. Coordinate clauses joined by copulative conjunctions.
Clauses joined by the conjunction and may be separated by a comma (if the connection between the clauses is close) or a semicolon (if the clauses are more independent). Occasionally a dash is used.
...a library was a most likely place for her, and he might see her there.
(London)
He wondered what boat it was, and why she did not stop at the wharf — and
then he dropped her out of his mind and put his attention upon his business.
(Twain)
Coordinate clauses joined by the conjunctions neither, nor are generally separated by a semicolon.
Martin did not laugh; nor did he grit his teeth in anger. (London)
She would not listen, therefore, to her daughter’s proposal of being carried
home; neither did the apothecary, who arrived about the same time, think it
necessary. (Austen)
Occasionally a comma is found.
He could not bring them back, nor could he go back to them. (London)
But you can’t get at him, neither can we. (Dickens)
Clauses joined by the conjunctive adverbs moreover, besides, then are usually separated by a semicolon.
He seemed to have no desire to go; besides his clothes were not good enough.
(Cronin)
It was the custom of that youth on Saturdays, to roll up his shirt sleeves to his
shoulders, and pervade all parts of the house in an apron of coarse green
baize; moreover, he was more strongly tempted on Saturdays than on other
days. (Dickens)
§ 9. Coordinate clauses joined by disjunctive conjunctions