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§ 7. The main sphere where the sequence of tenses is applied is object clauses.
Harris said he knew what kind of place I meant. (Jerome)
The sequence of tenses is not observed if the object clause expresses a general truth:
The pupils knew that water consists of oxygen and hydrogen.
In political language a present tense is often used in the object clause after a past tense in the principal clause.
The speaker said that the peoples want peace.
The sequence of tenses is often not observed if something is represented as habitual, customary, or characteristic.
He asked the guard what time the train usually starts. (Curme)
He did not seem to know that nettles sting. (Curme)
§ 8. In conventional direct speech the tenses are used according to the same principle which governs their uses in complex sentences with a principal clause and an object clause, though there is no principal clause.
She put her hands up to her ears; it was because there were . some thin gold
rings in them, which were also worth a little money. Yes, she could surely get
some money for her ornaments. The landlord and landlady had been good to
her; perhaps they would help her to get the money for these things. But this
money would not keep her long; what should she do when it was gone?
(Eliot)
§ 9. The sequence of tenses does not concern attributive relative clauses and adverbial clauses of cause, result, comparison, and concession (if the verb stands in the Indicative Mood).
I didn’t go out of the shop door, but at the back door, which opens into a
narrow alley. (Eliot)
He didn’t go to the cinema last night because he will have an exam
tomorrow.
She worked so much yesterday that she is feeling quite weak today.
Last year he worked more than he does this year.
He insisted on going to the library yesterday, though he will not want the
book today.
§ 10. The sequence of tenses is generally observed in subject clauses and predicative clauses:
What he would do was of no importance.
The question was what he would do next.
It is also observed in appositive attributive clauses:
She had a sickening sense that life would go on in this way. (Eliot)
Chapter XIX
INDIRECT SPEECH
§ 1. In contrast to direct speech, in which the exact words of the speaker are given, indirect speech is a form of utterance in which these words are reported.
§ 2. When direct speech is converted into indirect speech the following changes are introduced:
1. The quotation marks and the comma (or colon) are omitted.
2. If the speaker reports somebody else’s words the pronouns of the 1st person are replaced by those of the 3rd person; the pronouns of the 2nd by those of the 1st or 3rd.
He said, “I am ready.”
He said he was ready.
If the speaker reports his or her own words, the pronouns are naturally not changed:
I said, “I am ready.”
I said I was ready.
3. If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, demonstrative pronouns and adverbials expressing nearness are replaced by words expressing distance:
Here is replaced by there.
This by that, these by those.
Now by then, at that time (moment), or no adverb is used at all.
To-day is replaced by that day.
Yesterday by the day before or on the previous day.
Ago by before.
A year ago by a year before.
Last night by the previous night.
| DIRECT SPEECH | INDIRECT SPEECH |
| She said, “We have been here for a week.” | She said they had been there for a week. |
| She said, “I met them yesterday.” | She said she had met them the day before. |
| She said, “We can’t settle anything now.” | She said they could not settle anything at that moment (then). |
If the speaker speaks in the same place and at the same time as the speaker whose words are reported, the demonstrative pronouns and adverbs are not changed.
An hour ago he said he would come here tonight.
I told him I wouldn’t give him an answer till tomorrow. (Wilde)
4. If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, the tenses are changed according to the rule of the sequence of tenses.
| DIRECT SPEECH | INDIRECT SPEECH |
| The Present Indefinite is replaced by the Past Indefinite. | |
| She said, “We often write letters.” | She said they often wrote letters. |
| The Present Continuous is replaced by the Past Continuous. | |
| She said, “We are writing a letter.” | She said they were writing a letter. |
| The Present Perfect is replaced by the Past Perfect. | |
| She said, “We have just written a letter.” | She said they had just written a letter. |
| The Present Perfect Continuous is replaced by the Past Perfect Continuous. | |
| She said, “We have been writing for an hour.” | She said they had been writing for an hour. |
| The Past Indefinite is replaced by the Past Perfect. | |
| She said, “We wrote a letter last night.” | She said they had written a letter on the previous night. |
| The Past Continuous generally remains unchanged, or is replaced by the Past Perfect Continuous. | |
| She said, “I was writing at 5 o’clock.” | She said she was (had been) writing at 5 o’clock. |
| The Past Perfect remains unchanged. | |
| She said, “We had written the letter by 5 o’clock.” | She said they had written the letter by 5 o’clock. |
| The Past Perfect Continuous remains unchanged. | |
| She said, “We had been writing for an hour by 5 o’clock.” | She said they had been writing for an hour by 5 o’clock. |
| The Future Indefinite is replaced by the Future Indefinite in the Past. | |
| She said, “We’ll write a letter to-morrow.” | She said they would write a letter the next day. |
| The Future Continuous is replaced by the Future Continuous in the Past. | |
| She said, “We’ll be writing at 5 o’clock.” | She said they would be writing at 5 o’clock. |
| The Future Perfect is replaced by the Future Perfect in the Past. | |
| She said, “We’ll have written the letter by 5 o’clock.” | She said they would have written the letter by 5 o’clock. |
| The Future Perfect Continuous is replaced by the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past. | |
| She said, “We’ll have been writing for 2 hours by 5 o’clock.” | She said they would have been writing for 2 hours by 5 o’clock. |
| If the Past Indefinite in direct speech denotes an action taking place at a definite moment, it remains unchanged in indirect speech. | |
| She said, “I had left home before the telegram came.” | She said she had left home before the telegram came. |
| The Past Indefinite after since generally remains unchanged. | |
| She said, “I have been writing since I came.” | She said she had been writing since she came. |
5. When sentences containing the Subjunctive Mood are converted into indirect speech the form of the verb usually remains unchanged.
However, there is a case when, the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed: if we have the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may, may is changed into might if the verb in the principal clause stands in a past tense.
| DIRECT SPEECH | INDIRECT SPEECH |
| I should be discharged if I were seen speaking to you. (Shaw) | She said that she would be discharged if she were seen speaking to him. |
| It is true I drink, but I shouldn’t have taken to that if things had gone differently. (Maugham) | He admitted that he drank, but said he would not have taken to that if things had gone differently. |
| I think cheerfulness is a fortune in itself. I wish I had it. (Eliot) | She thought cheerfulness was a fortune in itself. She wished she had it. |
| Oh, how I wish I had never seen him! (Hardy) | She said she wished she had never seen him. |
| The boys will think none the worse of you whatever you may have done. (Conan Doyle) | He said that the boys would think none the worse of him whatever he might have done. |
6. The verb introducing direct speech is replaced by another verb which shows whether the indirect speech is a statement, a question, an order (request) or an exclamation.
| She said, “I’ve never seen the like of it.” | She declared she had never seen the like of it. |
| She said to him, “Do you know them?” | She asked him if he knew them. |
| She said to him, “Come here at once!” | She told him to come at once. |
| She said, “Why, I never expected he would do such a thing.” | She exclaimed she had never expected he would do such a thing. |
(For detailed treatment see § 3, 4, 5, 7.)
7. It should be borne in mind that there is a great difference between the style of direct and that of indirect speech.
Direct speech is characterized by a certain looseness of structure and is more emotional than indirect speech.
Indirect speech, on the contrary, is characterized by rigid logic of structure and terseness.
Accordingly, if, for instance, no conjunctions expressing causal relations are to be found in direct speech, they must be introduced into indirect speech.
| She said, “I am so tired! I’ve been writing for five hours.” | She said she was very tired as she had been writing for five hours. |
If certain words and phrases are repeated in direct speech, they must not be reproduced in indirect speech.
| She said to him, “It’s very kind of you to offer to help me, very kind indeed.” | She said it was very kind of him to offer to help her. |
So and such are replaced by very, exceedingly etc. in exclamatory sentences.
| She said, “Jane plays the piano so well!” | She said Jane played the piano very well. |
| She said, “Jane is such a good pianist!” | She said Jane was an exceedingly (very) good pianist. |
Interjections must be replaced by suitable adverbial modifiers.
| She said, “Alas! I’ll never be happy again!” | She exclaimed in despair she would never be happy again. |
8. Must, as a rule, remains unchanged in indirect speech if it expresses advice (order) or a supposition bordering on assurance (должно быть).
| She said to him, “You must be more careful.” (advice) | She told him he must be more careful. |
| She said, “You must be very fond of music if you go to concerts so often.” (supposition) | She said he must be very fond of music if he went to concerts so often. |
She was informed that she must never again walk much. (Hardy)
He said he was afraid you must think him ungrateful. (Marryat)
Mr. Brownlow smiled and said that Mr. Grimwig was an old friend of his and
he must not mind his being a little rough in his manners. (Dickens)
Must is generally replaced by had to if it expresses necessity arising out of circumstances.
| She said, “I must get up early every morning.” | She said she had to get up early every morning. |
Must is generally replaced by was to if it expresses arrangement or a kind of order.
| She said, “I must ring him up at two o’clock.” | She said she was to ring him up at two o’clock. |
§ 3. Indirect statements.
Indirect statements are generally introduced by the verbs to say, to tell, to announce and in official style by the verb to inform.
With the verbs to tell and to inform the person addressed is always mentioned. With the verbs to say and to announce the person addressed may or may not be mentioned. If it is mentioned, the preposition to is used.
| She said (to us), “There are interesting magazines in the reading-hall.” | She said (she told us) that there were interesting magazines in the reading-hall. |
| She said (to us), “I am leaving for good.” | She announced to us that she was leaving for good. |
| The monitor said to us, “There will be a meeting to-night.” | The monitor informed us that there would be a meeting that night. |
One night the telephone bell rang and he (Cowperwood) informed her that he
was compelled to remain at the office late. (Dreiser)
The verb to say is used to introduce both direct and indirect speech if the person addressed is not mentioned. If the person is mentioned, the verb to tell is preferable; if the verb to say is used, the preposition to is necessary.
| She said, “I’ll be back directly.” | She said she would be back directly. |
You said that you would give me back my letter, didn’t you? (Wilde)
The Miller said tohis wife that he would go down and see Little Hans.
(Wilde)
The verb to tell is used to introduce indirect speech only; the person addressed must be mentioned.
| She said to us, “I’ve received an interesting letter.” | She told us she had received an interesting letter. |
N o t e 1. — The verb to tell is used without the person addressed being
mentioned in sentences as The book tells of the life of Negroes, also in the
expressions to tell a lie, to tell the truth, to tell a story.
N o t e 2. — The verb to speak never introduces indirect speech because it is
never followed by an object clause (it can only be followed by an object
clause with a preposition).
Therefore the sentence ‘Он говорил, что любит музыку’ should be rendered
in the following way: He said he was fond of music.
N o t e 3. — It should be noted that the verb to speak cannot take a direct
object, unless it is the name of a language or the noun truth in the expression
to speak the truth. ‘Он говорил много интересного’ should be rendered in
the following way: He said many interesting things.
An emphatic statement tinged with emotion is often introduced by the verb to declare.
| She said, “It’s the dullest book I’ve ever read.” | She declared it was the dullest book she had ever read. |
The innkeeper declared that he really wanted to go to Oakbourne. (Eliot)
Other verbs are also used to introduce statements. According to the character of the statement, the verbs to promise, to remark, to remind, to assure, to admit, to deny etc. are frequently used.
| He said to me, “ I hope you have not forgotten that there will be a meeting to-night.” | He reminded me that there would be a meeting that night. |
| He said, “The text is rather difficult.” | He remarked that the text was rather difficult. |
| He said, “I did speak to her about that.” | He admitted having spoken to her about that. |
| He said, “I never spoke to her.” | He denied having spoken to her. |
| The child said to his mother, “I’ll never disobey you again.” | The child promised his mother never to disobey her again. |
| She said to them, “I’ll certainly come in time.” | She assured them that she would come in time. |