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(ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)
His face was disturbed and troubled, while his clothes were disarranged and
untidy. (Conan Doyle) (INDEPENDENT CLAUSE)
§ 13. Adverbial clauses of place.
An adverbial clause of place shows the place of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of place are introduced by the conjunctions where and wherever (где бы ни, куда бы ни).
...I am quite comfortable where I am. (Wilde)
I looked where she pointed. (Collins)
...the street singers and players were making their nightly pilgrimage, pausing,
wherever they saw a lighted window or a dark figure on a balcony. (Hichens)
N o t e. — One should not confuse the conjunction where introducing
adverbial clauses of place with the adverb where introducing subject clauses,
predicative clauses, object clauses, and attributive relative clauses.
Deronda placed himself where he could see her... (Eliot) (ADVERBIAL
CLAUSE OF PLACE)
This must be where my sister lives. This is where she came for a temporary
lodging, soon after father’s death. (Dickens) (PREDICATIVE CLAUSE)
Artois wondered where they were going. (Hichens)(OBJECT CLAUSE)
He turned immediately towards the hearth where Silas Marner sat lulling the
child. (Eliot) (ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE)
§ 14. Adverbial clauses of cause.
An adverbial clause of cause (reason) shows the cause of, the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of cause are introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, for fear (that); in official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions on the ground that, for the reason that and some others.
As he had a liking for the spot, he seldom let a week pass without paying it a
visit. (Dickens)
Letters were infrequent in his world and not very welcome because more
often than not they contained bad news. (Priestley)
Since he had a certain talent for composition, his English master encouraged
him to write little pieces... for the college magazine. (Cronin)
He is suspicious and jealous for fear anyone else might want to share in his
power. (Lawrence)
§ 15. Adverbial clauses of purpose.
Adverbial clauses of purpose state the purpose of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, in order that, so that, lest (чтобы не) and some others.
She kept her back to the window that he might not see her rising colour.
(Hardy)
Wounds sometimes must be opened in order that they may be healed.
(Trollope)
I crouched against the wall of the gallery so that I should not be seen. (Du
Maurier)
...he made all these exclamations in a carefully suppressed voice, lest the valet
should overhear anything. (Dickens)
§ 16. Adverbial clauses of condition.
Adverbial clauses of condition state the condition which is necessary for the realization of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions if, unless (если не), suppose, in case (в случае если), on condition that, provided (при условии что), etc.
If he is not here by the end of the week, I shall go after him. (Austen)
I do not wish you to be my wife unless you are bound to me by love.
(Trollope)
... my father, just at the last, consented to let him teach you, on condition that
he never attempted to see your mother. (Voyhich)
I will do anything you wish, my brother, provided it lies in my power.
(Dickens)
Adverbial clauses of condition can be joined to the principal clause asyndetically. In this case we find inversion in the subordinate clause.
...should Frank marry to-morrow, I shall have no ground for blaming him.
(Trollope)
Had she been an Englishwoman, Artois would have guessed her to be near
fifty. (Hichens)
§ 17. Adverbial clauses of concession.
An adverbial clause of concession denotes the presence of some obstacle which nevertheless does not hinder the action expressed in the principal clause.
Adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by the following conjunctions and connectives: though, although, as,l no matter how, however, whoever, whatever, whichever. In official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions notwithstanding that, in spite-of the fact that.
1 The conjunction as introduces adverbial clauses of concession in which the predicative stands first.
I enjoyed that day, though we travelled slowly, though it was cold, though it
rained. (Ch. Bronte)
Although the young man’s eyes remained upon him, he did not speak...
(Cronin)
Troubled as he was, he never exposed his difficulties to her. (Dreiser)
However much we may differ on the question of metaphysics, I am convinced
of your absolute integrity. (Cronin)
He went forward to meet his uncle prepared to suppress the agitation he must
feel, whatever news he was to hear. (Eliot)
§18. Adverbial clauses of result.
Adverbial clauses of result denote the result of the action expressed in the principal clause. Very often adverbial clauses of this type have an additional meaning of degree.
Adverbial clauses of pure result are introduced by the conjunction so that; they are usually separated from the principal clause by a comma.
Darkness had fallen and a keen blizzard was blowing, so that the streets were
nearly deserted. (Conan Doyle)
Adverbial clauses of result with an additional meaning of degree are introduced by the conjunction that; in these cases we find the adverb so or the demonstrative pronoun such in the principal clause. Such clauses are not separated from the principal clause by a comma.
He is so weak physically that he can hardly move. (Shaw)
Tom was in ecstasies — in such ecstasies that he even controlled his tongue
and was silent. (Twain)
§ 19. Adverbial clauses of manner.
Adverbial clauses of manner characterize in a general way the action expressed in the principal clause. They are usually introduced by the conjunction as. In adverbial clauses of manner the idea of comparison is often implied.
...she did exactly as he told her. (Hardy)
Joe left the house as he had entered it... (Cronin)
§ 20. Adverbial clauses of comparison.
Adverbial clauses of comparison denote an action with which the action of the principal clause is compared. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, as, as... as, not so... as, as if, as though.
Mr. Direck’s broken Wrist healed sooner than he desired. (Wells)
We were going up the road as fast as we could. (Hemingway)
He was white and jaded, as if he had not slept for many nights. (Wells)
She could see his lips moving, from time to time, as though he were talking
to himself. (Cronin)
N o t e. — Some grammarians number among complex sentences, containing
an adverbial clause of comparison, sentences of the following type:
The more he reflected on the idea the more he liked it. (Galsworthy)
The nearer he drew to that grim citadel the faster his pulse raced. (Cronin)
This way of analysis is open to objection on the ground that in sentences of this type it is impossible to point out the principal and the subordinate clause as, strictly speaking, here we have mutual subordination.
§ 21. Some of the conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses are polysemantic and can introduce different types of adverbial clauses. For instance, the conjunction as may introduce adverbial clauses of time, cause, manner, and comparison.
As he spoke there was a sharp ring at the bell.
(Conan Doyle) (ADVERBIAL
CLAUSE OF TIME)
As the morning was fine, and he had an hour on his hands, he crossed the
river by the ferry, and strolled along a footpath through some meadows.
(Dickens) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE)
The dog did as he was ordered. (Dickens) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF
MANNER)
She (Lillian) saw now that she did not love him (Cowperwood) as some
women love their husbands. (Dreiser) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF
COMPARISON)
The conjunction since introduces adverbial clauses of time and cause.
It was a long time since I had written to the States... (Hemingway)
(ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)
Since the lunchroom was full, she sat at our table, and, reached out for the bill
of fare. (King) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE)
The composite conjunction so that introduces adverbial clauses of result and purpose.
They were rich and I was poor, so that it was no easy matter for me to follow
them. (Conan Doyle) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF RESULT)
I turned away, so that Frith should not see my face. (Du Maurier)
(ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PURPOSE)
THE COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE
A compound-complex sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more coordinate clauses one of which at least has one or several subordinate clauses.
There was a song in every heart; and if the heart was young the music issued
at the lips. (Twain)
PARENTHETICAL CLAUSES
Besides all the types of clauses mentioned above, there is a special type of clause called the parenthetical clause, as in the following examples:
You are, I am afraid, far more urgently in need of medical advice than your
daughter. (Collins)
The next and last step in the investigation brought matters, as they say, to a
crisis. (Collins)
Her singing is something quite exceptional, I think. (Eliot)
Chapter XVIII
THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES
§ 1. The sequence of tenses is a certain dependence of the tense of the verb in a subordinate clause on that of the verb in the principal clause: if the verb in the principal clause is in one of the past tenses, a past tense (or future in the past) must be used in the subordinate clause. The rule is generally observed in object clauses (a more detailed treatment of the question will be found in § 7, 9, 10).
I thought you had better sense. (Dreiser)
I always thought it would come to this.
N o t e. — It is implied in the rule of the sequence of tenses that if a present or
future tense is used in the principal clause, any tense required by the sense can
be used in the subordinate clause:
I’ve seen which way the wind is blowing. (Dreiser)
§ 2. If the past action expressed in the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that expressed in the principal clause, the Past Indefinite or the Past Continuous is used in the subordinate clause:
I thought you had more courage than this. (Dreiser)
Я думал, что у вас больше мужества.
Не looked at Cowperwood and saw at once... that the latter was preparing a
big fight of some sort. (Dreiser)
Он посмотрел на Каупервуда и сразу понял, что тот замышляет какой-то
бой.
If the past action expressed in the subordinate clause is prior to that expressed in the principal clause, the Past Perfect is used in the subordinate clause:
He knew that she (Hetty) had not had time to read the letter. (Eliot)
Он знал, что она еще не успела прочесть письмо.
If the action expressed in the subordinate clause lasted a certain time before the action expressed in the principal clause, the Past Perfect Continuous or the Past Perfect Inclusive is used in the subordinate clause.
He realized
that the old life he had lived in that city since boyhood was
ended. (Dreiser)
Он понял, что та жизнь, которой он жил в этом городе с детства,
окончилась.
If the action expressed in the subordinate clause is posterior to that of the principal clause the Future in the Past is used.
He knew they would read the book the following year. (FUTURE
INDEFINITE IN THE PAST)
He knew they would be reading when she came. (FUTURE CONTINUOUS
IN THE PAST)
He knew they would have read the book by the 1st of June. (FUTURE
PERFECT IN THE PAST)
Occasionally we find examples of should being used with the 3rd person and would with the 1st. This generally occurs when the speaker wants to preserve the same verb that was used by the original speaker.
See! Here’s his writing; I made him put it down this morning when he told me
he shouldn’t be back before I came here. (Dickens)
He asked me if there wasn’t any hope that I would change. (Webster)
§ 3. If there are several subordinate clauses in a sentence, the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed in all of them.
As the weeks went by... he began to believe that she had been able to think
of her girlish fancy that Arthur was in love with her and would marry her as
a folly of which she was timely cured. (Eliot)
§ 4. The rule of the sequence of tenses also holds good when a past tense is used in a subordinate clause to which other clauses are subordinated.
She says he knew they would never return. (Bennett)
He said he was sure you were in.
§ 5. It should be noted that the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed after verbals if they depend on a finite verb in the past tense:
Cowperwood stood by his desk... wondering where he should get one
hundred thousand dollars. (Dreiser)
§ 6. In Russian, the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause does not depend on the tense of the verb in the principal clause.
TENSES USED IN ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AFTER A PAST TENSE IN THE PRINCIPAL CLAUSE
His face was disturbed and troubled, while his clothes were disarranged and
untidy. (Conan Doyle) (INDEPENDENT CLAUSE)
§ 13. Adverbial clauses of place.
An adverbial clause of place shows the place of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of place are introduced by the conjunctions where and wherever (где бы ни, куда бы ни).
...I am quite comfortable where I am. (Wilde)
I looked where she pointed. (Collins)
...the street singers and players were making their nightly pilgrimage, pausing,
wherever they saw a lighted window or a dark figure on a balcony. (Hichens)
N o t e. — One should not confuse the conjunction where introducing
adverbial clauses of place with the adverb where introducing subject clauses,
predicative clauses, object clauses, and attributive relative clauses.
Deronda placed himself where he could see her... (Eliot) (ADVERBIAL
CLAUSE OF PLACE)
This must be where my sister lives. This is where she came for a temporary
lodging, soon after father’s death. (Dickens) (PREDICATIVE CLAUSE)
Artois wondered where they were going. (Hichens)(OBJECT CLAUSE)
He turned immediately towards the hearth where Silas Marner sat lulling the
child. (Eliot) (ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE)
§ 14. Adverbial clauses of cause.
An adverbial clause of cause (reason) shows the cause of, the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of cause are introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, for fear (that); in official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions on the ground that, for the reason that and some others.
As he had a liking for the spot, he seldom let a week pass without paying it a
visit. (Dickens)
Letters were infrequent in his world and not very welcome because more
often than not they contained bad news. (Priestley)
Since he had a certain talent for composition, his English master encouraged
him to write little pieces... for the college magazine. (Cronin)
He is suspicious and jealous for fear anyone else might want to share in his
power. (Lawrence)
§ 15. Adverbial clauses of purpose.
Adverbial clauses of purpose state the purpose of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, in order that, so that, lest (чтобы не) and some others.
She kept her back to the window that he might not see her rising colour.
(Hardy)
Wounds sometimes must be opened in order that they may be healed.
(Trollope)
I crouched against the wall of the gallery so that I should not be seen. (Du
Maurier)
...he made all these exclamations in a carefully suppressed voice, lest the valet
should overhear anything. (Dickens)
§ 16. Adverbial clauses of condition.
Adverbial clauses of condition state the condition which is necessary for the realization of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions if, unless (если не), suppose, in case (в случае если), on condition that, provided (при условии что), etc.
If he is not here by the end of the week, I shall go after him. (Austen)
I do not wish you to be my wife unless you are bound to me by love.
(Trollope)
... my father, just at the last, consented to let him teach you, on condition that
he never attempted to see your mother. (Voyhich)
I will do anything you wish, my brother, provided it lies in my power.
(Dickens)
Adverbial clauses of condition can be joined to the principal clause asyndetically. In this case we find inversion in the subordinate clause.
...should Frank marry to-morrow, I shall have no ground for blaming him.
(Trollope)
Had she been an Englishwoman, Artois would have guessed her to be near
fifty. (Hichens)
§ 17. Adverbial clauses of concession.
An adverbial clause of concession denotes the presence of some obstacle which nevertheless does not hinder the action expressed in the principal clause.
Adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by the following conjunctions and connectives: though, although, as,l no matter how, however, whoever, whatever, whichever. In official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions notwithstanding that, in spite-of the fact that.
1 The conjunction as introduces adverbial clauses of concession in which the predicative stands first.
I enjoyed that day, though we travelled slowly, though it was cold, though it
rained. (Ch. Bronte)
Although the young man’s eyes remained upon him, he did not speak...
(Cronin)
Troubled as he was, he never exposed his difficulties to her. (Dreiser)
However much we may differ on the question of metaphysics, I am convinced
of your absolute integrity. (Cronin)
He went forward to meet his uncle prepared to suppress the agitation he must
feel, whatever news he was to hear. (Eliot)
§18. Adverbial clauses of result.
Adverbial clauses of result denote the result of the action expressed in the principal clause. Very often adverbial clauses of this type have an additional meaning of degree.
Adverbial clauses of pure result are introduced by the conjunction so that; they are usually separated from the principal clause by a comma.
Darkness had fallen and a keen blizzard was blowing, so that the streets were
nearly deserted. (Conan Doyle)
Adverbial clauses of result with an additional meaning of degree are introduced by the conjunction that; in these cases we find the adverb so or the demonstrative pronoun such in the principal clause. Such clauses are not separated from the principal clause by a comma.
He is so weak physically that he can hardly move. (Shaw)
Tom was in ecstasies — in such ecstasies that he even controlled his tongue
and was silent. (Twain)
§ 19. Adverbial clauses of manner.
Adverbial clauses of manner characterize in a general way the action expressed in the principal clause. They are usually introduced by the conjunction as. In adverbial clauses of manner the idea of comparison is often implied.
...she did exactly as he told her. (Hardy)
Joe left the house as he had entered it... (Cronin)
§ 20. Adverbial clauses of comparison.
Adverbial clauses of comparison denote an action with which the action of the principal clause is compared. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, as, as... as, not so... as, as if, as though.
Mr. Direck’s broken Wrist healed sooner than he desired. (Wells)
We were going up the road as fast as we could. (Hemingway)
He was white and jaded, as if he had not slept for many nights. (Wells)
She could see his lips moving, from time to time, as though he were talking
to himself. (Cronin)
N o t e. — Some grammarians number among complex sentences, containing
an adverbial clause of comparison, sentences of the following type:
The more he reflected on the idea the more he liked it. (Galsworthy)
The nearer he drew to that grim citadel the faster his pulse raced. (Cronin)
This way of analysis is open to objection on the ground that in sentences of this type it is impossible to point out the principal and the subordinate clause as, strictly speaking, here we have mutual subordination.
§ 21. Some of the conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses are polysemantic and can introduce different types of adverbial clauses. For instance, the conjunction as may introduce adverbial clauses of time, cause, manner, and comparison.
As he spoke there was a sharp ring at the bell.
(Conan Doyle) (ADVERBIAL
CLAUSE OF TIME)
As the morning was fine, and he had an hour on his hands, he crossed the
river by the ferry, and strolled along a footpath through some meadows.
(Dickens) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE)
The dog did as he was ordered. (Dickens) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF
MANNER)
She (Lillian) saw now that she did not love him (Cowperwood) as some
women love their husbands. (Dreiser) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF
COMPARISON)
The conjunction since introduces adverbial clauses of time and cause.
It was a long time since I had written to the States... (Hemingway)
(ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)
Since the lunchroom was full, she sat at our table, and, reached out for the bill
of fare. (King) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE)
The composite conjunction so that introduces adverbial clauses of result and purpose.
They were rich and I was poor, so that it was no easy matter for me to follow
them. (Conan Doyle) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF RESULT)
I turned away, so that Frith should not see my face. (Du Maurier)
(ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PURPOSE)
THE COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE
A compound-complex sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more coordinate clauses one of which at least has one or several subordinate clauses.
There was a song in every heart; and if the heart was young the music issued
at the lips. (Twain)
PARENTHETICAL CLAUSES
Besides all the types of clauses mentioned above, there is a special type of clause called the parenthetical clause, as in the following examples:
You are, I am afraid, far more urgently in need of medical advice than your
daughter. (Collins)
The next and last step in the investigation brought matters, as they say, to a
crisis. (Collins)
Her singing is something quite exceptional, I think. (Eliot)
Chapter XVIII
THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES
§ 1. The sequence of tenses is a certain dependence of the tense of the verb in a subordinate clause on that of the verb in the principal clause: if the verb in the principal clause is in one of the past tenses, a past tense (or future in the past) must be used in the subordinate clause. The rule is generally observed in object clauses (a more detailed treatment of the question will be found in § 7, 9, 10).
I thought you had better sense. (Dreiser)
I always thought it would come to this.
N o t e. — It is implied in the rule of the sequence of tenses that if a present or
future tense is used in the principal clause, any tense required by the sense can
be used in the subordinate clause:
I’ve seen which way the wind is blowing. (Dreiser)
§ 2. If the past action expressed in the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that expressed in the principal clause, the Past Indefinite or the Past Continuous is used in the subordinate clause:
I thought you had more courage than this. (Dreiser)
Я думал, что у вас больше мужества.
Не looked at Cowperwood and saw at once... that the latter was preparing a
big fight of some sort. (Dreiser)
Он посмотрел на Каупервуда и сразу понял, что тот замышляет какой-то
бой.
If the past action expressed in the subordinate clause is prior to that expressed in the principal clause, the Past Perfect is used in the subordinate clause:
He knew that she (Hetty) had not had time to read the letter. (Eliot)
Он знал, что она еще не успела прочесть письмо.
If the action expressed in the subordinate clause lasted a certain time before the action expressed in the principal clause, the Past Perfect Continuous or the Past Perfect Inclusive is used in the subordinate clause.
He realized
that the old life he had lived in that city since boyhood was
ended. (Dreiser)
Он понял, что та жизнь, которой он жил в этом городе с детства,
окончилась.
If the action expressed in the subordinate clause is posterior to that of the principal clause the Future in the Past is used.
He knew they would read the book the following year. (FUTURE
INDEFINITE IN THE PAST)
He knew they would be reading when she came. (FUTURE CONTINUOUS
IN THE PAST)
He knew they would have read the book by the 1st of June. (FUTURE
PERFECT IN THE PAST)
Occasionally we find examples of should being used with the 3rd person and would with the 1st. This generally occurs when the speaker wants to preserve the same verb that was used by the original speaker.
See! Here’s his writing; I made him put it down this morning when he told me
he shouldn’t be back before I came here. (Dickens)
He asked me if there wasn’t any hope that I would change. (Webster)
§ 3. If there are several subordinate clauses in a sentence, the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed in all of them.
As the weeks went by... he began to believe that she had been able to think
of her girlish fancy that Arthur was in love with her and would marry her as
a folly of which she was timely cured. (Eliot)
§ 4. The rule of the sequence of tenses also holds good when a past tense is used in a subordinate clause to which other clauses are subordinated.
She says he knew they would never return. (Bennett)
He said he was sure you were in.
§ 5. It should be noted that the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed after verbals if they depend on a finite verb in the past tense:
Cowperwood stood by his desk... wondering where he should get one
hundred thousand dollars. (Dreiser)
§ 6. In Russian, the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause does not depend on the tense of the verb in the principal clause.
TENSES USED IN ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AFTER A PAST TENSE IN THE PRINCIPAL CLAUSE
| ENGLISH | RUSSIAN |
| Past Indefinite | Present |
| I knew she played the piano every day. | Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле каждый день. |
| Past Continuous | Present |
| I knew she was playing the piano and did not want to disturb her. | Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле, и не хотел ее беспокоить. |
| Past Perfect | Past |
| I knew she had played the piano at the evening party. | Я знал, что она играла на рояле на вечере. |
| Past Perfect Continuous (Past Perfect Inclusive) | Present (in affirmative sentences) |
| I knew she had been playing (had played) the piano for two hours. | Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле два часа. |
| Past Perfect | Past (in negative sentences) |
| I knew she had not played the piano for a long time. | Я знал, что она давно не играла (не играет) на рояле. |
| Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive | Past |
| I knew she had been playing the piano. | Я знал, что она играла на рояле. |
| Future in the Past | Future |
| I knew she would play the piano at the evening party. | Я знал, что она будет играть на рояле на вечере. |