Exercise 6. Give your own interpretation of the following words and word combinations used in the text:
Cyber crime; counterfeit software; bundled software; shareware; softlifting; to fake user’s age and location; to spread a virus without a human action; to compromise information.
Exercise 7. Answer the following questions.

1. 
   What is the rate of growth of cyber crimes in the world?
   
2. 
   What are the main types of cyber crimes?
   
3. 
   What are the common types of software crimes?
   
4. 
   What types of malware can you name?
   
5. 
   What is the difference between a virus and a worm?
   
6. 
   Trojan Horses are designed to be more annoying than malicious, aren’t they?
   
7. 
   What is the main goal of Denial of Service Attack?
   
8. 
   What was Salami Slicing designed for?
   
9. 
   What methods does spoofing involve?
   

10.What are the two main forms of hijacking?
Exercise 8. Write at least 4 sentences to each heading given in the text and complete the summery of the text.

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PART II

TEXT 1 Father of Information Theory

American mathematician Claude Elwood Shannon was born in Gaylord,

Michigan on April 30, 1916. Shannon's father Claude was a judge in a small town of Gaylord, and his mother Mabel was the principal of the local high school. When a child, Shannon turned out to be mathematically precocious and received scientific encouragement from his grandfather, who

Claude Shannon

was an inventor and a farmer and whose inventions included the washing machine and farming machinery. From an early age, Shannon showed an affinity for both engineering and mathematics, and graduated from Michigan University with degrees in both disciplines. For his advanced degrees, he chose to attend the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. At the time, MIT was one of the prestigious institutions conducting research that would eventually formulate the basis for what is now known as the information sciences. Its faculty included mathematician Norbert Wiener, who would later coin the term cybernetics to describe the work in information theories that he, Shannon, and other leading American mathematicians were conducting. It also included Vannevar Bush, MIT's dean of engineering, who in the early 1930s had built an analog computer called the Differential Analyzer which was developed to calculate complex equations. It was a mechanical computer, using a series of gears and shafts. Its only electrical parts were the motors used to drive the gears. This work formed the basis for Shannon's influential 1938 paper "A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits," in which he put forth his developing theories on the relationship of symbolic logic to relay circuits.

Shannon graduated from MIT in 1940 with both a master's degree and doctorate in mathematics. After graduation, he spent a year as a National Research Fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton University. In 1941, Shannon joined the Bell Telephone Laboratories, where he became a member of a group of scientists charged with the tasks of developing more efficient information transmitting methods and improving the reliability of long-distance telephone and telegraph lines. While working at the Bell Labs they started to develop the theory of the error-correcting code.

One of the most important features of Shannon's theory was the concept of information entropy. Entropy happened to be equivalent to a shortage in the information content in a message and this fact was proved by Shannon. According to physics' second law of thermodynamics, entropy is the degree of randomness in any system which increases over a period of time. Thus, many sentences can be significantly shortened without losing their meaning. Moreover a signal proved to be sent without distortion. So this concept has been developed over the decades into sophisticated error-correcting codes that ensure the integrity of the data on which society interacts. While studying the relay switches on the Differential Analyzer, Shannon noted that the switches were always either open or closed, or on and off. This led him to think about a mathematical way to describe the open and closed states. Shannon theorized that according to a binary system a switch in the on position would equate to one and in the off position, it would be a zero. Reducing information to a series of ones and zeros, he noticed that it could be processed by using on-off switches .He believed that information was no different than any other quantity and therefore could be manipulated by a machine.

In the late 1940s, Shannon's research was presented in “The Mathematical Theory of Communications”. It was in this work that Shannon first introduced the word 'bit,' comprised of the first two and the last letter of 'binary digit' to describe the yes-no decision that lay at the core of his theories. Shannon's most important scientific contribution was his work on communication. In 1941 he began a serious study of communication problems, partly motivated by the demands of the war effort. This research resulted in the classic paper entitled "A mathematical theory of communication" in 1948. Combining mathematical theories with engineering principles he set the stage for the development of the digital computer and the modern digital communication revolution. The results were so breathtakingly original, that it took some time for the mathematical and engineering community to realize their significance. But soon his ideas were picked up, elaborated upon, extended, and complemented with new related ideas. As a result a brand-new science had been created in the form of Information theory, with the publication of that single paper, and the frame work and terminology he established remains standard even today.

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During the World War II, Alan Turing, a leading British mathematician spent a few months working with Shannon. Both scientists were interested in the possibility of building a machine that could imitate the human brain. In the 1950s, Shannon continued his efforts to develop what was then called "intelligent machines" - mechanisms that emulated the operations of the human mind to solve problems.

Shannon's information theories saw application in a number of disciplines in which a language is a factor, including linguistics, phonetics, psychology and cryptography. His theories also became a cornerstone of the developing field of artificial intelligence, and his famous conference at Dartmouth College in 1956 was the first major effort in organizing artificial intelligence research. He wrote a paper entitled "Programming a computer for playing chess" in 1950, and developed a chess playing computer.

Shannon's interest did not stop with these. He was known to be an expert juggler who was often seen juggling three balls while riding a unicycle. He was an accomplished clarinet player, too.

"Shannon was the person who saw that the binary digit was the fundamental element in all of communication," said Robert Gallagher, a professor of electrical engineering who worked with Shannon at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. "That was really his discovery, and from it the whole communications revolution has sprung," considered Marvin Minsky of M.I.T., who as a young theorist worked closely with Shannon.

Shannon received a plenty of numerous honorary degrees and awards. His

published and unpublished documents (a total of 127) cover an unbelievably wide spectrum of areas. Many of them have been a priceless source of research ideas for others. One could say that there would be no internet without Shannon's theory of information; every modem, every compressed file, every error correcting code owes something to Shannon. Shannon died at age 84 on February 27, 2001 in Medford, Mass., after a long fight with Alzheimer's disease.

Exercises__Exercise_1.'> Exercises

Exercise 1. What do these figures refer to?

1930s

1940

2001

1941

late1940

1956

1950

1916

1938

Exercise 2. Agree/disagree with the following statements:

a) Claude Shannon showed a keen interest for sciences from an early childhood.

b) In the 1930’s Massachusetts Institute of Technology was one of the most prestigious scientific and research institutions conducting the work in information theories.

c) The Differential Analyzer was the first electronic computer.

d) Shannon graduated from MIT with only the Master’s degree.

e) Shannon’s concept of entropy was applied to probability theory.

f) Shannon was the first who introduced the word “bit” to describe the “yes-no” decision.

g) Shannon stopped his scientific activity in the early 1950’s.

h) Nowadays we have an opportunity to use the Internet due to Shannon’s theory of information.

i) Claude Shannon is one of the most outstanding scientists of the 20th century

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.

1) What was Shannon’s family background?

2) Who had a strong scientific influence on young Shannon?

3) What fields of science was he interested in?

4) Where did he receive his higher education?

5) What was Shannon’s early work devoted to?

6) What work was he involved in working at the Bell Telephone Labor- atories?

7) What was his most significant scientific achievement?

8) What kind of mechanism did he try to develop in the 1950’s together with Alan Turing?

9) What other sciences was his information theory applied to?

10) What is the title of his most famous paper?
Exercise 4. Sum up the text using the following key points:

---

1. 
   Family background
   
2. 
   Education (degrees)
   
3. 
   Areas of scientific and research activity
   
4. 
   Major achievements
   

Exercise 5. Comment on the statements:

1. Claude Shannon is considered to be “the father of information theory”.

2. Shannon’s scientific and research contribution to the world science is enormous.

3. There would be no internet without Shannon's theory of information.
Exercise 6. Briefly retell the text.

TEXT 2 Google

Google is an American multinational corporation specializing in Internet-related services and products, which include search, cloud computing, software, and online advertising technologies. Google began in January 1996 as a research project by Larry Page and Sergey Brin when they were both PhD students at Stanford University in Stanford, California.

While conventional search engines ranked results by counting how many times the search terms appeared on the page, Page and Brin theorized about a better system that analyzed the relationships between websites. They called this new technology PageRank. PageRank determined a website’s relevance by the number of pages, and the importance of those pages, that linked back to the original site. Page and Brin originally nicknamed their new search engine “BackRub”, because the system checked backlinks to estimate the importance of a site. Eventually, they changed the name to Google, originating from a misspelling of the word “googol”, the number one followed by one hundred zeroes, which was picked to signify that the search engine was intended to provide large quantities of information.

The domain name for Google was registered on September 15, 1997, and the company was incorporated on September 4, 1998. It was based in a garage of Susan Wojcicki, the friend of Page and Brin. In March 1999, the company moved its offices to Polo Alto, California, which is home to several prominent Silicon Valley technology startups.

In 2003, after outgrowing two other locations, the company leased an office complex from Silicon Graphics at 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway in Mountain View, California. The complex became known as the Googleplex. Three years later, Google bought the property from SGI for $319 million. By that time, the name “Google” had found its way into everyday language, causing the verb “google” to be added to the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary and the Oxford English Dictionary, denoted as “to use the Google search engine - to obtain information on the Internet”. Since then, Google has grown and expanded. It bought and absorbed many firms, turning their developments into new services and projects.

Google produces a lot of products and services, such as Web-based products, Operating systems, Desktop and Mobile applications, and Hardware products. Web-based products can be divided into Search tools (Google Search, which is Google’s core product, Google News, Google Video, etc.), Advertising services (Google AdSense, Google AdWords, etc.), Communication and Publishing tools (YouTube, Gmail, Google Docs, etc.), Development tools (Google App Engine, Google Web Toolkit, etc.), Map-related products (Google Maps, Google Sky, Google Mars, etc.), and Statistical tools (Google Analytics, Google Consumer Surveys, etc.)

Google’s Operating Systems are Android (for mobile devices), Chrome OS ( runs on the Chrome book and Chrome box), and Google TV ( a smart TV platform). Examples of Desktop and Mobile applications are Google Chrome (web browser), Google Earth ( virtual 3D globe that uses satellite imagery, aerial photography, GIS from Google’s repository), Google Keep (it allows you to quickly create, access and organize notes, lists and photos), Google Now (a built in application that acts as your personal assistant through voice commands), etc.

Some of Google’s Hardware products are Nexus smartphones and tablets running the Android OS, Google TV, Chrome book (laptop PC running Chrome OS), Google Glass ( a wearable computer with an optical head-mounted display and camera that allows the wearer to interact with various applications and the Internet via natural language voice commands), and Google driverless car.

By 2014 Google remained one of the most important and powerful corporations, which annually relieved numerous awards. It’s difficult now to imagine our life without products and conveniences donated to us by Google.

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Exercises

Exercise1. What do these figures refer to?

1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2014, $319 million

Exercise2. Agree/disagree with the following statements.

1. Google is just one of the five most popular websites in the world.

2. Google was originated by American PhD students.

3. The name Google was given to estimate the importance of a site.

4. The name of the site “Google” and the company of the same name were registered simultaneously.

5. The company “Google” was originally based in Polo Alto, California.

6. The name “Google” had found its way into everyday language by 2010.

7. Google has grown and expanded since 2006.

8. Google Web-site products are divided into 6 groups.

9. Android is the only operating system used by Google.

10. By 2014 Google had become one of the most major world companies specializing in Internet-related services and products.

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.

1. What does Google specialize in?

2. How was the company “Google” originated?

3. What was the research of Page and Brin aimed at?

4. What is the main idea of PageRank technology?

5. Why did Page and Brin originally name their new search engine “BackRub”?

6. What does the word “googol” mean?

7. When was the domain name for Google registered?

8. Since when has Google grown and expanded?

9. What products and services does Google produce?

10. What is Google’s main product?
Exercise 4. Comment on the statements:

1. While conventional search engines ranked results by counting how many times the search terms appeared on the page, Page and Brin theorized about a better system that analyzed the relationships between websites.

2. Eventually, they changed the name to Google, originating from a misspelling of the word “googol”, the number one followed by one hundred zeroes, which was picked to signify that the search engine was intended to provide large quantities of information.

3. By that time, the name “Google” had found its way into everyday language, causing the verb “google” to be added to the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary and the Oxford English Dictionary, denoted as “to use the Google search engine - to obtain information on the Internet”. Since then, Google has grown and expanded.
Exercise 5. Make up a plan of the text and sum it up.

TEXT 3 Steve Jobs

When you think of the name “Steve Jobs”, you probably think of “Apple”, “Macintosh computers”, “money” and “success”. But, did you know that his life hasn’t always been easy? This is the biography of Steve Jobs.

Steve Job’s mother was a college graduate when she found herself alone and pregnant. Feeling like she had no other choice in the matter, the young woman chose to put her baby up for adoption. Steven Paul Jobs was born in San Francisco, California on February 24, 1955. But, it would be a few months later until he got to go home with his new parents, Clara and Paul Jobs. His biological mother agreed to her son’s adoption, but there was one stipulation: his new parents had to give her their word he would graduate from high school and attend college. The family lived in Mountain View within California’s Silicon Valley. Clara worked as an accountant and Paul was a Coast Guard veteran and machinist. As the Jobs raised their son, father Paul took the time to teach young Steve a variety of things in the family garage. His father also taught him electronics, although his knowledge was limited. As Steve Jobs was being raised in Silicon Valley – a metropolis of “high tech”- it was relatively easy for him to explore the interest in electronics his father sparked. A neighbour named Larry Lang, who worked as an engineer at the Hewlett-Packard company taught Steve a great deal about the subject.

Steve Jobs has always been an intelligent and innovative thinker. It could sound strange but during his first years at school Steve had a tough time. It was until a teacher named Mrs.Hill realized Steve had an exceptional mind when he was in the fourth grade. Jobs tested so well that administrators wanted to skip him ahead to high school – a proposal his parents declined. After Steve Jobs had graduated from high school, he enrolled at Reed College. He still had no clue what he wanted to do with his life, so he quit attending his scheduled classes six months later. Steve continued to hang out at the campus for several months longer, but he took only classes, such as Calligraphy, that he enjoyed and which developed his love of typography.

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