Файл: 1. Stylistics as a branch of linguistic science. Subject, methods, related research and the differences between them.docx

33. The publicist style: political discourse.

Political discourse relies on the principle that people`s perception of certain issues / concepts can be influenced by language

Features:

o The use of implicature (the info is hidden in the text, not pronounced, people convince ourselves in smth – We will save NHS (meaning it is in trouble, we`ll save it)

o The use of political correctness

o The use of figurative language (stylistic devices, but a lot of conventional means – the audience should not be distracted from the logical pattern of the text)

o The use of pronouns (them vs us division, sharp contrast, we have to take sides; to foreground smth; to hide agency (who performed an action) and responsibility (I-we))

o The combination of written and spoken varieties (can be observed in the same text) colloquial features (direct address (dear citizens, …), the use of `you`, contracted forms, colloquial words

o The use of three-part statements (Education!)

o Syntactic stylistic devices (Repetition, antithesis, parallel structures, climax, suspense, rhetorical question, question in the narrative)

34. The style of scientific discourse. Popular scientific style.

The functional style of scientific discourse

The main function – to provide specialists (target audience who possess knowledge about this sphere) with up to date (not necessarily the most recent – nuclear physics) and relevant information.

Mostly is expository but can contain narrative and descriptive passages

According to the subject matter:

• 
  - Humanities and social sciences
  
• 
  - Sciences (includes everything else)
  
• 
  • Scientific (theoretical) style
  
• 
  • Technical (practical) style
  

In relation to the addressee:

• 
  - Scientific discourse proper
  
• 
  - Popular scientific discourse
  

Genres singled out in scientific discourse:

• 
  various scientific papers
  
• 
  articles in academic journals
  
• 
  essays
  
• 
  reports
  
• 
  reviews
  
• 
  lectures
  
• 
  textbooks
  
• 
  manuals, instructions, etc.
  

The first scientific genre – letters

The methodology of science with its demand for systematic research and precise description has the following consequences:

• Logical coherence

All texts are organized in clear paragraphs – highly cohesive units based on logic. Most paragraphs would be given on general thematic point, next sentences will elaborate. The theme of the next paragraph is usually derived from the elaboration of the previous one. All relations between sentences and paragraphs are marked with the use of connectives. Various cross-reference relations, both anaphoric (pointing to the info given previously) and cataphoric (pointing forward).

• Objectivity

We need to describe things as they are impersonally. The limited use of personal pronouns (I, you, we). The account (description) of the experiments – they should be explained in the same way that the others can reach the same result. Terminology.

• Impersonal statement of facts

Passive constructions. Nominalisation. The informal it. There is, are structures. The use of non-human grammatical subjects combined with active voice (The research suggests, the results demonstrate)

• Clarity

We understand the meaning in which the writer understands it. Terminology. Non-verbal representations (tables with numbers, schemes, charts, video materials). We need to comment on them! Alternative `languages` (Chemistry, Maths (formulas))

• Brevity

To make the text more concise, shorter but without losing information. Clear organisation of the text (introduction, main body and conclusion). The use of abbreviations. Limited use of elliptical sentences.

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• Authority

Quotations always accompanied by the references. The use of footnotes.

Lexical characteristics

• Subject matter neutral vocabulary (everyday words to identify new discoveries and hypothesis – verbs of exposition (assume, determine, verify), verbs of warning and advising (avoid, check, notice), verbs of manipulation (adjust, extract, prepare), adjectival modifiers)

• Technical terms

• Abbreviations

• Novel vocabulary (words which are created or given new meanings – to rebut (to restart)

• 
  High lexical density, precise wording , absence of vulgarisms and slang
  

Grammatical characteristics

• 
  The sentences in general will be long with a complex internal structure.
  
• 
  A lot of passive constructions, parenthetical constructions
  
• 
  subordination prevails over coordination
  
• 
  various nominalised forms
  
• 
  high frequency of noun-phrases
  
• 
  limited use of personal pronouns
  
• 
  three types of sentences (postulatory, argumentative, formulative)
  

Stylistics

The use of quotations with the function of supporting one`s point of view, elements of emotive evaluation, THE CONTENT WORDS, figurative language, penetration of a dialogue or represented speech

Popular scientific discourse

• 
  Is addressed to a wide range of non-professional readers
  
• 
  presents a simplified version of research data
  
• 
  has a stronger emotional appeal to the audience
  
• 
  aim - to inform and to make people interested in the subject (the focus on the reader)
  
• 
  A lot of examples, additional explanations
  
• 
  imagery and reference to the background knowledge as the main types of arguments
  
• 
  is presented in many forms, including books, film and television documentaries, magazine articles, and web pages
  
• 
  Use of metaphors and analogies to explain difficult or abstract scientific concepts
  

35. The style of official documents.

• 
  Serves a specific area of human communication
  
• 
  Regulates relations between communication participants in a very unequivocal way (it should be very clear and precise, no misinterpretation)
  
• 
  The communication participants don`t have to be human beings
  
• 
  Can regulate the relations between groups of people, organizations, legal entities (companies), whole states
  
• 
  Spheres – diplomacy, business, law and military sphere
  

Features:

• 
  The terminology (different due to dif languages (the diplomatic, legal spheres)
  
• 
  Special lexis (all varieties have their own lexical nomenclature)
  
• 
  Lexical means that are in common – the use of abbreviations (MEP (members of the European parliament), MPs, IPO (initial public offering), RSPCA (protection of animals) + acronyms (NATO, UNESCO), conventional symbols (dollar) and contractions (Ltd (limited), Pvt (private))
  
• 
  Abundant use of contractions and abbreviations in military terms (reason – the speed of transmission) (atk – attack, cmdr – commander)
  
• 
  The most of the words of official documents are monosemantic. There can be glossaries in order to avoid ambiguity in official documents
  
• 
  Official documents are not likely to contain imagery and SDs.
  

An exception – metaphorical meanings can be found in military documents (to name certain location through the metaphors to confuse the rival) (ex- submarine – fish)

Words with emotive meanings normally are not found, exception – words in the opening and closing remarks of business letters (ex – Dear Mr. Smith, Yours faithfully)

Syntax

• 
  Different documents can be characterised by various compositional patterns (structure)
  
• 
  Clear system of numbers (easier to refer to certain parts of the documents)
  
• 
  Extremely long complex sentences (reason – legal mentality, between the capital and a full stop – one proposition)
  
• 
  Quite a lot of parallel structures (equality of parts)
  

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36-38. British News style. News reports and informational articles. The lead + general characteristics + features of newspaper headlines and brief news items

News style (British)

1702 - 1st newspaper - The Daily Courant, but the style appeared at the beginning of 19 century

National British press (3 kinds)

1) Broadsheets

● No longer printed => look like tabloids

● Quality press

· was the largest newspaper format and characterized by long vertical pages

● The Times, the Sunday Times, the Telegraph, the Sunday Telegraph, the Guardian, the Independent, the Observer

2) Middle range tabloids

● The Express, the Sunday Express, the Daily Mail, the Mail on Sunday

● Also have "human interest stories"

· caters to readers who like entertainment as well as the coverage of important news events

3) Tabloids

● The Mirror, the Star, the Sun

· a type of newspaper that has smaller pages, many pictures, and short reports

· often attract readers with sensational headlines

● Topless ladies on page 3

Linguistic features

● monological written texts, readers are implicit, indirect (at a certain distance from the journalist)

● Texts are not only written, but public (large audiences that share the same background knowledge, beliefs and values)

● Rule: news discourse is impersonal and must be impartial, but has never been truly impartial

❖ Have set of topics

❖ Have lexical choice (same people may be described as terrorists or freedom fighters - lack of impartiaqlity)

❖ Choice of grammar (passive – focus on the action)

❖ Specific vocabulary (terminology, newspaper lexis: lexical units used to discuss specific topics – clichés, although cliches becomes boring, the authors try to use conceptual metaphors and create original titles)

● Created under pressure:

1) Time pressure – competition to be the 1st to report the news

● Verbal stereotypes, clichés

● Fixed patterns of sentences (to write faster)

● Replacement of terminology with non-terminological expressions => becomes catchy

2) Space pressure – the text should be brief

➔ Now-noun phrases (a-tv-channel-award)

➔ Phrasal attributes (get-rich-quick economy)

➔ Compound patterns (goal-oriented)

➔ Combination patterns (inflation prone)

➔ Conversion (inflation-proof)

➔ Nominal structures

➔ Elliptical sentences

➔ Relative clauses (connectives may be dropped)

NB! Advertisements are the main way for getting money

General characteristics of the lexis

● Use of core words

➔ Find words which have clear antonyms (cold - warm)

● High collocational frequency (fat: person, check, salary)

● More neutral synonyms preferred

● Verbs without marked connotation preferred (neutral connotation)

● Words that don't belong to one specific sphere of discourse (left-right)

· hyperonyms preferred to hyponyms

Different kinds of speech (voices)

● The reporter's own speech

● Direct speech (quotations)

· Indirect speech

● Represented speech

Genres

1) Longer informational articles and news reports

● Composition: 1st part – summary (headline, lead), 2nd part – main event(s),+ MAY BE antecedents, background, consequences, comments, conclusion, assumptions and reflection)

● Inverted pyramid: the most important is in the beginning

2) Brief news items

● To inform the readers

● Consist of 1-3 sentences (normally each sentence is a paragraph)

● Supposed to be unemotional, neutral, evaluation should be rational

● Abbreviations

● Can contain neologisms

● Syntax: contain complex sentences with various subordinate clauses (embedded clauses) + verbal constructions + attributive noun groups + syntactical complexes + 5wh structure (who, what, where, when, why, how) – ideally answer all in 1 sentence), but may have 4 of them

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3) Lead

● Beginning (initial) sentence conveying the central meaning of the article

● Similar to brief news items

● Kinds of lead:

➔ Summary lead

➔ Quote lead

➔ Question lead

➔ 'Shocker' lead

➔ Suspended interest lead (we're intrigued)

4) Headline

● Aren't written by those who wrote texts, are done by certain specialists

● Most important function – to attract attention

● Contain creative means (a lot)

➔ Puns

➔ Intertextuality (allusions)

➔ Phonetic devices (Join the kew for the bloom with a phew)

➔ Stylistically marked words (butchered)

➔ Omission of words

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