Файл: 1. Stylistics as a branch of linguistic science. Subject, methods, related research and the differences between them.docx

1. Stylistics as a branch of linguistic science. Subject, methods, related research and the differences between them.

Nils Erik Enkvist “Style is a concept as common as it is elusive”

Stylistics is a branch of general linguistics. It deals mainly with two interdependent tasks:

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  Investigation of special language media which secure the desirable effect of the utterance – they are called stylistic devices(SD) and expressive means(EM). Stylistics studies the nature, functions and structure of SDs and EMs
  
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  The second field of investigation is concerned with certain types of texts which due to the choice and arrangement of language means are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of communication. These types are called functional styles of language
  

In the Russian tradition Stylistics covers the research into both literary and other applications of language (Vinogradov, Vinokur, professor Galperin, Jakebson, Zhirmunskij, Arnold, Kozhina, and Rozinkina). Гальперин defined Stylistics as a sub domain of Linguistics dealing with stylistic researches of the language and with functional styles. The methods of research vary and rely not only on traditional linguistic methods but also on those: cognitive, pragmatic, literary criticism, sociolinguistic, rhetoric and others.

- The link between stylistic and other branches of science: Stylistics overlaps with (частично совпадать) pragmatic and sociolinguistic relationships existing between the writer and the reader. It looks at how the context situation, subject matter or function can constrain (обязывать) the choice of linguistic means and features. It overlaps with discourse analyses, which try to answer why certain means were used or why the text or the message are organized in a certain way.

Stylistic is used in 3 ways in research (ELL) into linguistic:

1. 
   means to help “explain” initiative reader responses to the text (literary; criticism)
   
2. 
   means with the aim to classify texts, genres, literary periods formally by attributing authorship and provenance
   
3. 
   variation as exemplification for the development of a more theoretical understanding of a language system
   

2. The notion of style. Stylistic markedness. Stylistic function.

The majority of linguists who deal with the subject of style agree that the term applies to the following fields of investigation:

1. Style is the correspondence between thought and expression. The notion is based on the assumption that language is said to have two functions: it serves as a means of communication and also as a means of shaping one's thoughts. The first function is called communicative, the second - expressive, the latter finds its proper materialization in strings of sentences especially arranged to convey the ideas and also to get the desired response.

2. Style is addition to language. Language and style are regarded as separate bodies, but language can easily dispense with style. Moreover, style as an embellishment of language is viewed as something that hinders understanding. In its extreme, style may dress the thought in such fancy attire that one can hardly get at the idea hidden behind the elaborate design of tricky stylistic devices.

This notion presupposes the use of bare language forms deprived of any stylistic devices and of any expressive means deliberately employed.

3. Style is technique of expression. In this sense style is generally defined as the ability to write clearly, correctly and in a manner calculated to the interest of the reader. Style in this utilitarian sense should be taught, but it belongs to the realm of grammar, and not to stylistics. It sets up a number of rules as to how to speak and write and discards all kinds of deviations as being violations of the norm. The norm itself becomes rigid, self-sustained and to a very great extent inflexible.

4. Style signifies a literary genre. Thus we speak of classical style or the style of classicism; realistic style; the style of romanticism and so on. On the other hand, the term is widely used in literature, being applied to the various kinds of literary work, the fable, novel, ballad, story etc. The word is also used to denote the way the plot is dealt with, the arrangements of the parts in a literary composition to form the whole, the author’s place and the role in describing and depicting events.

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We also speak of the different styles of language. A style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. The peculiar choice of language means is primarily dependent on the aim of communication.

Thus we may distinguish the following styles within the English literary language: 1) the belles-letters style; 2) the public style; 3) the newspaper style; 4) the scientific prose style; 5) the style of official documents and presumably some others.

5. Individual style can also stand for a unique combination of language units, expressive means and stylistic devices peculiar to a given writer, which makes his/her works/utterances easily recognizable. Hence, individual style may be linked to a proper name. The main feature of individual style is idiosyncratic and deliberate choice of language, and the ways the selected elements are treated. “The wording is different because the inner world is different” (N. Kozlov “Fairy tales with philosophical tinge”).

The most frequent definition of style is one expressed by Seymour Chatman: “Style is a product of individual choices and patterns of choices among linguistic possibilities”.

Stylistic function - the ability of language means to interact in such a way in the text so as to convey, in addition to the factual information, the expressive, emotive, evaluative and aesthetic information.

We need to remember several points:

· there is no one on one correspondence between the stylistic function and the means that perform it (in some texts certain means may perform a specific stylistic function, but in other texts these means are neutral)

· the same function can be expressed by different means in the same text (e.g. authors want to attract attention and make sure that we don’t miss this information)

· in some texts one or two linguistic means will be very strong to colour the whole text (usually are found in key or strong positions = title, 1st or last paragraph)

The notion of stylistic function is connected with the notion of stylistic information.

Stylistic information = non-factual information (anything that comes in addition to the factual information)

We need to analyse all the units of the text and their textual, linguistic and extra-linguistic techniques. (we should see as many things as possible)

Markers of words:

· Language units associated with specific branches of human activity (e.g. terms) To achieve a certain effect = a novel about a scientist => many scientific terms, but it’s not an article, it’s a novel

· Emotional connotation (ironic words, derogatory words, taboo words

BUT! Also people who use the language create new things, new means (specifically for the text or in general)

Stylistic markedness is prominence of some language unit in a language as a system or in a context

If we create a specific context practically any linguistic unit can become stylistically marked. <= To analyse this there are 2 theories:

· The theory of deviance

· The theory of foregrounding

The theory of deviance

The norm - a recognised or received standard. Galperin: “The norm is an invariant of the phonemic, morphological, lexical and syntactical patterns circulating in language-in-action at a given period of time”. (It means: Norms can change with time and new means can also form the norm) Anything that deviates from the norm will become stylistically marked. (But then it can become the norm)

Deviance = this word negatively coloured => no longer being used; “transposition” instead of “deviance”

The theory of foregrounding

Created by Prague linguistic circle (they focused on the language of literature) They stressed that when reading literature our attention is drawn to the language of the text first of all. According to them modifications of the norm are not a violation of the norm or a deviation from the norm; the authors just draw our attention to something => we need to interpret why the author did it.

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The theory of foregrounding is based on the ability of the language user to predict the possibility of a language form on the basis of once previous experience.

(Not breaking the rules of the language, but developing of a language <= new means)

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3. The key notions of stylistics: imagery, expressiveness, evaluation, emotiveness and stylistic devices.

Functional style - a variety of the language used to identify specific socio-linguistic situations (the language of law, of science)

Expressiveness - a notion which refers to the emotional content of an expression as well as to the degree to which the expression reflects the personality or the individual linguistic creativity of the language user. The notion expressive is closely linked to three more notions: affective, connotative, emotive => where affective refers to the emotional effect on the addressee; connotative suggests emotional associations with words; emotive implies that the choice of words reflects the users attitude to the contents => Expressiveness is quite broad.

Emotiveness - linguistic manifestation of emotions. (It is a part of expressiveness)

Imagery - reflects the ability of the language to convey multiple layers of meaning.

Evaluation - presupposes that the language user compares a phenomenon with his/her system of values and places this phenomenon along the respective scale.

Stylistic devices (SD) - linguistic means which reflect the creative ability of the language user. They are unique, individual, carry a great amount of stylistic information and require a considerable effort to be understood. They have a number of possible patterns of life (example; repeated or turn into patterns). When SD start being repeated they become less expressive and turn into conventional stylistic devices. Conventional SD become part of the language (they may be registered in dictionaries; singled out in textbooks; may have corresponding neutral synonyms) => eventually they lose their expressiveness completely. But! Some of them can be revived. To get revived they need to get involved in more linguistic creativity (smb needs to extend conventional means or find a striking new context for it)

4. The notion of variation. Variation in the English language: codification, geographical and social factors.

Variation – any system of lang expression whose use is governed by situational variables. Lang. varieties can be determined by the aims of communication. Lang. varies because of the wide range of uses it is put to a wide range of contexts as well as several identities of a person. Number of factors, which would bring lang. variations:

· Codification factor

Creates standard and sub-standard English.

o Standard is that elaborated form of the language which is based on phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactical and stylistic (pragmatic) norms. These norms are recognized by the majority of native speakers (super-posed) – ranking above other varieties, as it is acceptable everywhere, used by upper, middle class, taught in edu context , the lang of writing (exception – fiction)

o Sub-standard is beyond of established forms. Includes slang, vulgarisms, jargons, grammatical illiteracies.

Slangcan be

o General – admitted into standard E and is understood as a colloquial departure from standard usage

o Special – the lang of underworld

Standard and sub-standard together form national English

· Geographical factor

Reflects physical space between lang and culture communities – National languages (American, British...) and dialects

National languages are characterized by both ling differences and referential differences

Dialects are recognized by phonetics, gram differences and structural ones.

· Social

Reflects social space between communities or social groups or individuals

(Home=house , greens=vegetables. ) It creates sociolects. Sociolects are determined by a number of parameters (some of them can be changed)

o Social status by birth

o Education (changeable)

o Occupation (changeable)

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o Ethnic group

o Gender (changeable)

o Age (one directionally)

5. Variation in the English language: medium, relationship and subject matter factors.

· Medium

Divides the lang into spoken and written, and each variant can be further classified:

Spoken can be spontaneous and non-spontaneous speech

Spontaneous – monologue and dialogue

Non-spontaneous – reciting and speaking what is written (- written to be spoken – public speaking)

Written variety has only 3 options

o Written to be spoken

o Written to be spoken as if not written

o Written not necessarily to be spoken (legal documents, articles, essays)

Spoken v. variety came first , presupposes the presence of the interlocutor. It has intonation and gestures at its disposal.

o Written allows the user to plan, revise, edit and change the message before it reaches the addressee

o The message is more permanent. It can be stored and retrieved when as an when necessary as many times as it is necessary and without any changes from the first presentation.

The difference is manifested linguistically

Ø Spoken speech is characterized by a grammatical intricacy (mistakes if make a spoken speech in written form), shorter words and sentences, more self-reference words, fewer precise numerical words, more functional words and fewer content ones, more superlative words, repetitions , more contracted forms, more interjections, colloquial words, constrictions with the word to get, the use of elliptical sentences.

Ø Written speech is characterized by a greater verbal density (fewer functional verbs), more terms, fewer self-reference words, longer words, more attributive adjectives, more varied vocabulary, more nominalization, more nominal constrictions, more subordination than coordination, preference for passive over active voice.

· Relationship – the proximity of the interlocutors (social proximity)

o Frozen (restricted to the ritualistic areas: church, court of law)

o Formal (presupposes the communication between interlocutors which have difference social status) – is rather similar to the written variety.

o Consultative – the neutral lever – between 2 people who don’t know each other well but consider themselves of the same status (small talk)

o Casual – authentically English (going to the same pub all the time, informal language but still understandable for the people around)

o Intimate (groups which have a long history of joint activities) families, sport teams, criminal gangs. (not understandable for other people)

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  Subject matter – brings about registers, which is understood as language in action. The classification is vague (horse racing English)
  
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  Functional factor – creating functional style. The term “functional style” is used in russ. tradition (in eng – discourse types). diff varieties within the lang. have no rigid borders. they intersect each other and their confrontation in one text may have stylistic significances.
  

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