Файл: 1. Stylistics as a branch of linguistic science. Subject, methods, related research and the differences between them.docx

The factors which would influence the choice of FS:

1. 
   aim of communication (function)
   
2. 
   sphere of communication (communicative domain)
   
3. 
   Socio cultural factor which includes
   

• 
  - Historical parameters
  
• 
  - Political
  
• 
  - Economic
  
• 
  - Technological
  
• 
  - Others
  

4. 
   individual and communal choices (= social groups make certain selection of language means)
   

Every fs is characterised by a number of features

• 
  - Extralinguistic
  
• 
  - Linguistic
  

Extralinguistic – the term was introduced in 1959 by Edgar Shnaider , and further developed by prof Kozhina. She subdivided them onto primary and secondary style features.

When we talk about the style there are features which can be divided into 2 categories:

1. 
   primary stylisitc features - predominant specific features conditioned by extra linguistic properties of the style. : in the style of official documents psf are: prescriptive , mandatory precise and impersonal character.
   
2. 
   secondary stylisitc features = style markers and they will be language properties attributed to this/that functions. : passive constructions, parallel structures
   

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25. The notion of functional style. Taxonomy of FS.

· Stylistics is defined as a sub-domain of linguistics, dealing with stylistic resources of the language and functional styles.

· If function is the role language plays in the context of society, then functional style should be defined as a variety of the language used to identify specific sociolinguistic situations.

Functional style – variety of the language used to identify specific socio-linguistic situations.

There are two approaches to functional styles:

• 
  · Functional approach (is historically the first)
  
• 
  · Variation approach
  

1925 – Prof. Vinokur differentiated functionally motivated language systems:

• 
  · Colloquial
  
• 
  · Poetic
  
• 
  · Belles-lettres
  
• 
  · Scientific
  
• 
  · Newspaper
  

However, Vinokur didn’t use the term “functional style”.

1930s - Prague linguistic circle is responsible for the creation of the term “functional style” (Трубецкой и Якобсон).

1932 - Havranek (Гавранек) used the term “functional style” and gave a definition:

FS - the language means that function as instruments for stylistic purposes constitute only a specific manner of organization of concrete utterances.

· Within the functional style the means come from the general language.

1942 – Mathesius (Матезиус) drew a distinction between the individual, inevitable style of creative artist and interindividual and more highly conventionalized styles.

The Prague linguistic circle treated literary style as something different from other functional styles.

How literary style should be treated?

Approach 1: Literary style should be excluded from stylistic research

Approach 2: Literary style should be included into stylistic research

Conditioning Factors:

• 
  · Style features
  
• 
  · Taxonomy of functional styles
  

Functional approach

Monofunctional:

• 
  · 1 function correlates only to 1 functional style
  
• 
  · than 1 function correlates to several functional styles (Galperin, Vinogradov)
  
• 
  · For example, scientific, news style have one function – to inform;
  

Functional style – a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication (Galperin)

Vinogradov defined 3 functions that corresponded to 5 functional styles:

• 
  1^st function – communicative function ->the style of conversation;
  
• 
  2^nd – the informative function -> the style of scientific prose, the style of official documents;
  
• 
  3^rd – the pragmatic function -> the journalese, the belles letters style (literary style)
  

Polyfunctional

• 
  · the same functions are inherent in different styles;
  
• 
  · they will be inherent in varying degrees– Yuri Stepanov:
  

Functional style – is a historically developed and socially cognised sub-system within the system of a national language assigned to certain communicative situations (speech situations) and characterised by a set of means of expression and the underline principles of their selection from the national language.

Shveizer: functional style - a class of particular social speech situations, not specifically individual speech situations. -> functional styles are not individual instances; we need to have more than one instance to speak about a system (a class of particular social speech situations);

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Variation approach

Нильс Эрих Enkvist: functional styles are a sort of a linguistic variation, they are contextually conditioned variations that include the participants, relations between them, circumstances etc.

· Functional styles – fuzzy sets of text = we have good examples and not good examples of a certain FS (some instances of text can serve as better examples of a certain FS + we can not draw a line of distinction).

For example, a journal publication of The Economist (mass media) -> as it publishes a scientific text (text with elements of scientific writing)

Prof. Nayer: functional style – is a socially recognized and functionally conditioned model of systematic linguistic variation.

Conditioning factors for FS:

· The function / the aim of communication

· The communicative domain / the sphere of communication

· Socio-cultural factor / socio-cultural development of society (historical, political, economic, technological, and other kinds of development) -> a function style develops when the society needs this functional style

(for example, for the scientific style to appear you need to have science);

· The individual and communal (groups of people) choice (e.g. writes can introduce certain expressions; doctors/priests can influence others, etc.)

Style Features and Style Markers

The features can be:

· 1) Extralinguistic;

· 2) Linguistic;

1) Extralinguistic properties = style features (Edgar Chnider 1959);

Later the notion of style features was subdivided into primary and secondary (Kozhina)

This term was introduced in 1959 by Edgar Shnaider and further developed by prof. Kozhina.

Primary style features – predominant specific features which are conditioned by extra-linguistic properties of the functional style

For example, for documents style features are: prescriptive, mandatory, official manner, concise;

Secondary style features =conventionality – we can also find these in other functional styles.

2) Style markers = linguistic properties found in various FSs.

For example, passive constructions can be found in official documents or scientific texts.

Taxonomy of Functional Styles (Classification)

Functional style is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. (Galperin)

A functional style is a patterned variety of literary text characterized by the greater or lesser typification of its constituents, super-phrasal units, in which the choice and arrangement of interdependent and interwoven [ɪntəˈwəʊvən] (переплетающихся) language media are calculated to secure the purport of communication.

Prof. Galperin singled out 5 functional styles (Standard Written English):

• 
  · Publicist style
  
• 
  · Newspaper style
  
• 
  · The style of scientific prose
  
• 
  · The style of official documents
  
• 
  · The belles letters style (literary style / the style of literature)
  

Prof. Nayer adds one more functional style to Galperin’s classification => technical style (instructions, operating manuals)

Prof. Arnold speaks about the same 5 FS as Galperin, but she adds the style of conversation (spoken English as well)

Cristal and Davy – add to Galperin’s classification the style of religion.

The taxonomy of FS continues to develop, because the language develops as well as the society => it means that new spheres of communication appear and they need the language of their own (e.g. chat style)

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26.The literary style. Its principal characteristics.

Literary style has a dual nature: literary text is both a work of art and a fact of the language.

An aesthetic side of literary style. We derive pleasure from reading as authors create the imaginary reality: writers work with language, modify and adopt it, sometimes they have to invent words.

The literary style is a generic term for 3 substyles:

1. 
   the language of poetry or simply verse;
   
2. 
   emotive prose, or the language of fiction;
   
3. 
   the language of the drama.
   

The literary style has certain indispensable linguistic features which are:

1. 
   genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices.
   
2. 
   the use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning, or at least greatly influenced by the lexical environment.
   
3. 
   vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the author’s personal evaluation of things or phenomena.
   
4. 
   peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax, a kind of lexical and syntactical idiosyncrasy.
   
5. 
   introduction of the typical features of colloquial language to a full degree(in plays) or a lesser one(in emotive prose) or a slight degree, if any(in poems).
   

Literary style is a functional style that performs its functions:

1. Follow artistic universals (there are some standards => texts have to meet some kind of criteria).

2. Literary text have greater freedom as well as certain pressure (writers are free to use all language means they want, any register from highly former to highly informal). The main goal is to create smth that will be aesthetically accepted.

3. They fit into any communicative situation.

4. The text is self-contained (независимый) = doesn’t need to rely on any external sources, you don’t need to read something before or after;

5. it presupposes no preceding events and no further actions = the text in that style anticipates no further actions, we don’t have to react after reading;

· The most important style marker introduced by Russian researches Tomashevskiy, Jacobson, Victor Scklovsliy (Виктор Шкловский) is literariness - a linguistic and textual property.

They related literariness to various deviations. You can find these deviations on all levels of the language:

· Common core English is used to produce certain effect => it has a quality beyond the use of words to convey referential meaning.

Literary text is characterized by an unexpected selection and arrangement of the language units.

There are two sets of relations of language units:

• 
  · Extra textual (preference of events, phenomenon)
  
• 
  · Intertextual (quotations, allusions )
  

There are various narrative methods:

• 
  · Different types of narrators;
  
• 
  · Different points of view;
  

Existence of different prose systems or discourse types is provided by blending of various styles and registers (for example, the writer should use written variety + some features of spoken).

Semantic Density:

Is a displaced interaction between the author and reader (we can look at the text from the view of standard structure: addresser -> message -> addressee).

The writer has an image of reader. The reader also creates the image of the author.

The narrator is not an author. But he/she is involved in the text. There is the latest theory that the reader is a coathor of the text.

There is no reality before story.

The text relies on imagery (three types: factual -> details, transferred -> the use of SDs, symbolic -> culturally significant symbols).

In terms of looking into the text, the initial research -> focus on creative process.

27. The style of religion.

Functional style of religion
Functions

• 
  Transmission of values
  
• 
  Persuasion - important
  
• 
  Directive - important
  
• 
  Aesthetic
  

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Kind of language which a speech community uses for the expression of its religious beliefs on a public occasion
Use of clichés and expression
Almost unintelligible to an untrained ear
Language of religious texts reveals: older + modern versions of English
Some of the older expressions form a part of people's linguistics consciousness (the powers that be / to do smth by the sweat of thy ground)
Has a lot to do with public speaking
Vocabulary:

• 
  Theological terms (mystical / outdated / may be difficult to understand)
  
• 
  Archaisms or archaic words
  
• 
  Typical words of this particular discourse (to ground, to bless, to praise, to glorify)
  
• 
  Paradoxical equations (body and sole. Bread - body of Christ)
  

Semantic types / genres:

• 
  Statement of belief
  
• 
  Prayer of supplication
  

All texts contain pivotal concept of God
Kind of texts:

• 
  Prayers
  
• 
  Psalms
  
• 
  Sermons - проповедь
  

Religious English is not restricted to religious situations only, it also has a cultural function:

• 
  we can find samples of religious Eng outside of the religious environment in literature (if you have a religious character, also in TV)
  
• 
  Religious style may become a source of humour
  

The style of religion is one of the recognized varieties of English distinguished by certain functions and a specific sphere of communication.

The main aims of the religious functional style:

• 
  · expressing religious belief on public occasions;
  
• 
  · explaining the existing world;
  
• 
  · regulating individual/group behavior;
  

Elements of the religious style may be used also in literature;

They as well can penetrate the daily colloquial speech in the form of allusions, quotations, set expressions and create humour.

The religious style is realized in numerous forms and practices:

• 
  · the Bible
  
• 
  · books of prayers
  
• 
  · religious hymns
  
• 
  · common prayers
  
• 
  · sermons
  
• 
  · songs.
  

According to D. Crystal and D. Davy (1969), it falls into at least three substyles:

1. 
   the biblical substyle,
   
2. 
   the liturgical substyle, and
   
3. 
   the theological discourse substyle.
   

The core of the religious style is formed by the biblical substyle, which seriously influences all subspheres of religious communication. Biblical quotations come through all other substyles. Reading from the Scriptures play the main part in most liturgical services.

The biblical substyle is of particular interest to stylistics due to its metaphorical (figurative) language. Stylistically relevant is also the fact that the texts of the Bible (73 books) are available in many variants.

Grammatical features

Syntax is characterized by:

· the use of complete, complex and compound sentences;

· the tendency towards coordination (within the sentence as well as within nominal and verbal groups);

· frequent occurrence of inverted word order, detachment, parallel constructions (accompanied by lexical and root repetition), anaphora, epiphora, polysyndeton, etc.

· other peculiarities are the use of the archaic pronouns (e.g. thou, thy, etc.) and verb forms (e.g loveth; thou asketh, etc.).

Vocabulary

The religious style is distinguished by rich imagery created by:

• 
  · similes;
  
• 
  · metaphors; = One can also come across metaphors (good tree bringeth forth good fruit; rain descended and beat against the home).
  

• 
  · metonymies;
  
• 
  · epithets, etc. ;
  

· In old versions there are plenty archaic words (for example, a publican for a person who collected taxts).

· Besides, the words and combinations used in religious texts belong to the formal or elevated layers (for example, to glorify, to have mercy, sacred, etc.).

· The language of religious texts is also marked by frequent oppositions

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