ВУЗ: Не указан
Категория: Не указан
Дисциплина: Не указана
Добавлен: 04.08.2020
Просмотров: 4229
Скачиваний: 5
13. From the denotational point of view the meaning of the words can be changed into generalization and specialization of words. Give their definitions and examples to them.
Results of semantic change can be generally observed in the changes of the denotational meaning of the word (extension and restriction of meaning) or in the alteration of its connotational component (amelioration and deterioration of meaning). Changes in the denotational meaning may result in the restriction of the types or range of referents denoted by the word. Restriction of meaning is called specialization of meaning or narrowing of meaning. It is gradual process when a word passes from a general sphere to some special sphere of communication. The meaning of a word can specialize when it remains in the general usage. It happens in the case of the conflict between two absolute synonyms when one of them must specialize in its meaning to remain in the language. F: the City –the business part of London, Oxford-university town in England, the Tower-originally a fortress and palace, later a prison, now-a museum, room – originally a space, now-dining room, sleeping room
Changes in the denotational meaning may also result in the application of the word to a wider variety of referents. This is commonly described as extension of meaning. If the word with the extended meaning passes from the specialized vocabulary into common use, we describe the result of the semantic change as the generalization of meaning or broadening of meaning. F: the word borrowed into Middle English from old French where it was persone and came from Latin persona “the mask used by an actor, one who plays a part, a character in a play”. The great theatre spaces in ancient Rome made it impossible for the spectators to see the actor’s face and facial changes. It was also difficult to hear his voice distinctly. That is why masks with a megaphonic effect were used (chairperson, policeperson, salesperson, workperson)
14. State out the types of Homonyms.
We can mention three types of homonyms.
1) homonyms proper are the words which are the same in sound and spelling, e.g. ball-ball
2) homophones are words which are the same in sound but different in spelling, e.g. bean-been 3) homographs are words which are the same in spelling but different in sound, e.g. to lead-to conduct on the way, go before to show the way; lead-a heavy, rather soft metal
Homonyms may belong both the same and to different categories of parts of speech. According to professor A.I.Smirnitsky classified homonyms into two large classes:
1) full or complete homonyms. They are words which represent the same category of parts of speech and have the same paradigm. Paradigm is the system of the grammatical forms of a word. F: match (n)- a game, a contest; match (n)-a short piece of wood used for producing fire.
2) partial homonyms are subdivided into three subgroups: a) simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words which belong to the same category of parts of speech. Their paradigms have one identical form, but it never the same form, as will be seen from the examples as found (v), found (v)-past indef, past part of to find; b) complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words of different categories of parts of speech which have one identical form in their paradigms. F: rose (n)-rose (v)-pas indef, past part of to rise; c) partial lexical homonyms are words of the same category of parts of speech which are identical only in their corresponding forms. F: to hang (hung, hung) (v)- to hang (hanged, hanged) (v)
15. Give the main causes of borrowings and comment of them.
The term “source of borrowing” should be distinguished from the term “origin of borrowing”. The first should be applied to the language from which the loan word was taken into English. The second, on the other hand, refers to the language to which the word may be traced. Borrowing resorted to the word-stock of other languages for words to express new concepts, to further differentiate the existing concepts and to name new objects, phenomena. The term loan word is equivalent to borrowing. Alongside loan words proper, we distinguish loan translation and semantic loans. Translation loans are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the British language but according to patterns taken from another language, by way of literal morpheme-for-morpheme or word-for-word translation. The term “semantic loan” is used to denote the development in an English word of a new meaning due to the influence of a related word in another language.
The question of why words are borrowed by one language from another is still unanswered. According to surveys we can mention four main reasons of borrowings:
1) Sometimes it is done to fill a gap in vocabulary, they did it because their own vocabulary system lacked words for new objects.
2) It is borrowed because it represents the same notion in some new aspect, supplies a new shade of meaning or a different emotional colouring. This type of borrowing enlarges groups of synonyms and greatly provides to enrich the expressive resources of the vocabulary, there may be a word which express some particular object.
3) It is borrowed by historical circumstances. Each time two nations come into close contact, certain borrowings are a natural consequence. The nature of the contact may be different. It may be wars, invasions or conquests, trade, international cultural relations.
4) It is borrowed “accidentally”, it means words may be borrowed “blindly” so to speak for no obvious reason.
16. Speak about the types of antonyms. Illustrate with examples.
Together with synonyms, antonyms represent the language’s important expressive means. Authors use antonyms as a stylistic device of contrast. V.N.Komissarov’s work antonyms are classified into: a) absolute or root antonyms (love-hate, late-early); b) derivational antonyms (known-unknown). Not so many years ago antonyms was not as a linguistic problem and the opposition between pairs was regarded as purely logical and finding no reflection in the semantic structures of the words. The contrast between the pairs is said by most scholars as the contrast of things opposed by their very nature.
The difference between derivational and root antonyms is not in their structure, but in semantics as well. Derivational antonyms express contradictory notions, one of them excludes the other, e.g. active-inactive. Absolute antonyms express contrary notions. If some notions can be arranged in a group of more than two members, the most distant members of the group will be absolute antonyms, e.g. ugly, plain, good-looking, pretty, beautiful, the antonyms are ugly and beautiful.
17. Contrast the difference between slang and colloquialisms. Give examples.
Colloquial words are used by everybody and their sphere of used in everyday conversational speech both by cultivated and uneducated people of all age groups. Colloquial words are subdivided into literary colloquial, familiar colloquial and low colloquial. Literary colloquial words are used not only everyday speech but also include the printed page. The borderline of literary colloquial words is not limited. As the examples of literary colloquial words may be
a) a number of shortenings, e.g. pram, exam, fridge, flu, math, movie
b) verb with post-positional adverbs: put up, make up, make out, do away, turn up, turn in
Familiar- colloquial words. The circle of speakers using familiar colloquial is more limited: these words are used mostly by the young and the semi-educated. This vocabulary group closely verges on slang and has smth of its coarse flavour.
Low colloquial words are usually characteristic of the speech of persons who may be broadly described as uncultivated. This group is stocked with words of illiterate English which do not present much interest for our purposes.
The term colloquial is old enough. Dr.Johnson, the great English lexicographer used it. Colloquial English is very emotional. In all the groups of colloquialisms and in familiar colloquial especially, words easily acquire new meanings and new valency.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines slang as “language of a highly colloquial style, considered as below the level of standard educated speech and consisting either new words or of current words employed in some special sense”. Slang, informal, non-standard words and phrases, generally shorter lived than the expressions of ordinary colloquial speech, and typically formed by creative, often witty juxtapositions of words or images. Slang can be contrasted with jargon (technical language of occupational or other groups) and with argot or cant (secret vocabulary of underworld groups), but borderlines separating these categories from slang are greatly blurred, and some writers use the terms cant, argot and jargon in a general way to include all the foregoing meanings. Slang tends to originate in subcultures within a society. Occupational groups (F: loggers, police, medical professionals and computer specialists) are prominent originators of both jargon and slang; other groups creating slang include the armed forces, teenagers, racial minorities, ghetto residents, labor unions, citizens-band radiobroadcasters, sports groups, drug addicts, criminals and even religious denominations. In addition to occupational and professional groups, there are many other types of subcultures that supply slang. These include sexual deviants, narcotic addicts, ghetto groups, institutional populations, agricultural subsocieties, political organizations, the armed forces, Gypsies, and sports groups of many varieties. Some of the most fruitful sources of slang are the subcultures of professional criminals who have migrated to the New World since the 16th century. In some cases slang may provide a needed name for an object or actionor it may offer an emotional outlet or a satirical or patronizing reference. It may provide euphemisms and it may allow its user to create a shock effect by using a pungent slang expression in an unexpected context. Slang has provided myriad synonyms for parts of the body, for food, for drunkenness. Slang words are expressive, mostly ironical words serving to create fresh names for some things that are frequent topics of discourse. They sound somewhat vulgar, cynical and harsh. This is not surprising, for slang words and idioms are short-lived and very soon either disappear or lose their peculiar colouring and become either colloquial or stylistically neutral lexical units. Most slang words are metaphors. The circle of users of slang is more narrow than that of colloquialisms. It is mainly used by the young and uneducated. Slang’s colourful and humorous quality makes it catching, so a considerable part of slang may become accepted by nearly all the groups of speakers. Slang words are clearly motivated. The lexical meaning of a slang word contains not only the denotational component but also an emotive component (most often it expresses irony) and all the other possible types of connotation – it is expressive, evaluatory and stylistically coloured and is the marked member of a stylistic opposition. Some of these are the employment of metaphor, simile, folk etymology, distortion of sounds in words, generalization, specialization, clipping, the use of acronyms, elevation and degeneration, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, borrowings from foreign languages, and the play of euphemism against taboo.
According to sphere of usage slangs are subdivided into general and special slang.
General slang includes words that are not specific for any social or professional group. Special slang is peculiar for some such group: teenager slang, university slang, football slang.
18. Formulate the definition of phraseological units and its functions.
Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. Phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. Phraseological units can be classified according to the ways they are formed, according to the degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to their structure and according to their part-of-speech meaning. motivated word groups are usually described as phraseological units. Phraseological units or idioms as they are called by most western scholars, represent what can probably be described as the most picturesque, colourful and expressive part of the language’s vocabulary. Phraseology is a kind of picture gallery in which are collected vivid and amusing sketches of the nation’s customs, traditions, recollections of its past history, scraps of folk songs and fairy-tales. Usually the leading component of the idiom is expressed by a verb or a noun.
19. Define about the context and its types.
Context is the minimal stretch of speech necessary to determine individual meanings of the word. A full understanding of the semantic structure of any lexical item can be gained only from the study of a variety of contexts in which the word is used, i.e. from the study of the intralinguistic relations of words in the flow of speech. That is why the main types of linguistic contexts which serve to determine individual meanings of words are lexical, grammatical, the extra-linguistic or context of situation, common contextual associations or thematic groups.
In lexical contexts the main importance are the groups of lexical items combined with the polysemantic word under consideration. F: the verb to take in isolation has primarily the meaning “lay hold of with the hands, grasp, seize” when combined with the lexical group of words denoting some means of transportation (e.g. to take the tram, the bus, train) it acquires the meaning synonymous with the meaning of the verb go. This can be also proved that when we want to describe the individual meaning of a polysemantic word, we find it sufficient to use this word in combination with some members of a certain lexical group. F: handsome + man, person; size, reward, sum. The meaning “good looking” and “considerable, ample” are illustrated by the contexts. The meanings determined by lexical contexts are sometimes referred to as lexically (or phraseologically) bound meanings which implies that such meanings are to be found only in certain lexical contexts.
In grammatical contexts the grammatical structure serves to determine various individual meanings of a polysemantic word. F: one of the meanings of the verb make is “to force, to induce” is found only in the grammatical context possessing the structure to make smb do smth or in other terms this word’s meaning is “to become”. “to turn out to be” is observed in the contexts of a different structure. i.e. make followed by an adjective and a noun (to make a good wife, a good teacher). A different syntactic function of the verb, e.g. that of the predicate (to make machines, tables) excludes the possibility of the meaning “to become, turn out to be”. The lexical and grammatical contexts are also called linguistic or verbal contexts.
In extra-linguistic contexts (context of situation) the meaning of the word is determined not by the linguistic factors but by the actual speech situation in which this word is used.
In common contextual associations (the thematic groups) the meaning is based on the coocurrence of words in certain repeatedly used contexts. Words in thematic groups are joined together by common contextual associations within the framework of the sentence and reflect the interlinking of things or events. Words making up a thematic group belong to different parts of speech and do not possess any common denominator of meaning. Contextual associations formed by the speaker of a language are usually conditioned by the context of situation which necessitates the use of certain words. F: journey-train-taxi-bags-ticket; shopping – it is usual to speak of the prices, of the goods we buy, sell.
Extra-linguistic and common contextual associations are also called extra-linguistic or non-verbal contexts.
20. Give the functions of phraseological units and semantic classification.
Sometimes people also confuse proverbs as phraseological units. But they are different. If one compares proverbs and phraseological units in the semantic aspect, proverbs sum up the collective experience of the community, for example they moralize, give advice, give warning, criticize, admonish. No phraseological unit ever does any of these things. They do not stand for whole statements as proverbs do but for a single concept. The function of phraseological units in speech is purely nominative (they denote an object, an act, etc.), the function of proverbs in speech is communicative (they impart certain information). Professor A.V.Koonin includes proverbs in his classification and calls them communicative phraseological units. From this point of view one of the main criteria of a phraseological unit is its stability. If the quotient of phraseological stability in a word-group is not below the minimum. It means that we are dealing with a phraseological unit. That is why we may say that there does not seem to exist any rigid or permanent borderline between proverbs and phraseological units as the latter rather frequently originate from the former.
The semantic classification of phraseological units suggested by V.V.Vinogradov.
Academician Vinogradov classifies phraseological units which was based on the semantic principle and it is considered by some linguists of today to be outdated, because it was the first classification system. Here phraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation of their meaning. He pointed out three types.
1) Fusions where the degree of motivation is very low, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components, they are highly idiomatic and cannot be translated word for word into other languages. These are word-groups with a completely changed meaning, but in contrast to the unities they are demotivated, that is, their meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of the constituent parts.
2) Unities where the meaning of the whole can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorical or metonymical). These are word-groups with a completely changed meaning, that is, the meaning of the unit does not correspond to the meaning of its constituent parts. They are motivated units or putting it in another way, the meaning of the whole unit can be deduced from the meanings of the constituent parts.
3) Collocations or phraseological combinations where words are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages. These are word-groups with a partially changed meaning. They may be said to be clearly motivated, that is, the meaning of the unit can be easily deduced from the meanings of its constituents. This group contains one component used in its direct meaning, while the other is used metaphorically.
21. Give your points of view on the differences of phraseological units and proverbs. Give examples.
Sometimes people also confuse proverbs as phraseological units. But they are different. If one compares proverbs and phraseological units in the semantic aspect, proverbs sum up the collective experience of the community, for example they moralize, give advice, give warning, criticize, admonish. No phraseological unit ever does any of these things. They do not stand for whole statements as proverbs do but for a single concept. The function of phraseological units in speech is purely nominative (they denote an object, an act, etc.), the function of proverbs in speech is communicative (they impart certain information). Professor A.V.Koonin includes proverbs in his classification and calls them communicative phraseological units. From this point of view one of the main criteria of a phraseological unit is its stability. If the quotient of phraseological stability in a word-group is not below the minimum. It means that we are dealing with a phraseological unit. That is why we may say that there does not seem to exist any rigid or permanent borderline between proverbs and phraseological units as the latter rather frequently originate from the former.
A proverb is a short familiar epigrammatic saying expressing popular wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a concise and imaginative way. Proverbs have much in common with set expressions, because their lexical components are also constant, their meaning is traditional and mostly figurative, and they are introduced into speech ready-made.
22. Define the types of phraseological units from the structural point of view.
The structural classification of phraseological units suggested by A.I.Smirnitsky.
He classified two types. He offered a classification system for English phraseoogical units which is interesting as an attempt to combine the structural and the semantic principles. Here phraseological units are grouped according to the number and semantic significance of their constituent parts.
1) One-top or one-summit. Among one-top he pointed out three structural types;
a) units of the type (verb+postposition type) or verbal-adverbial units. They are equivalent to verbs in which the semantic and the grammatical centres coincide in the first constituent
b) units of the type “to be tired” or units equivalent to verbs which have their grammatical centre in the first constituent but their semantic centre in the second. Some of the units remind the Passive voice in their structure but they have different prepositions with them, while in the Passive voice we can have only prepositions “by or with”
c) prepositional-substantive units either to adverbs or to copulas and having their semantic centre in the substantive constituent and no grammatical centre
One-summit units, which have one meaningful constituents.
2) Two-top or two-summit, multi-summit which have two or more meaningful constituents. They are classified into:
a) attributive-substantive or attributive-nominal equivalent to nouns (black art);
b) verbal-substantive or verb-nominal equivalent to verbs (to take the floor);
c) phrasalogical repetitions equivalent to adverbs (now or never, ups and down, back and forth, cakes and ale, as busy as a bee); such units can be built on antonyms, components in repetitions are joined by means of conjunctions. These units are equivalent of adverbs or adjectives and have no grammar centre. They can also be partly or perfectly idiomatic. F: cool as a cucumber (partly), bread and butter (perfectly)
d) adverbial (every other day)
23. Define the types of phraseological units from the funcional point of view.
Classication of phraseological units according to their functions suggested by A.V.Koonin.
1) nominative phraseological units are represented by word-groups, including the ones with one meaningful word and coordinative phrases of the type wear and tear, well and good. This class also oncludes word-groups with a predicative structure as the crow flies, predicative phrases as see how the land lies, ships that pass in the night
2) nominative-communicative phraseological units include word-groups of the type to break the ice –the ice is broken, that is, verbal word-groups which are transformed into a sentence when verb is used in the Passive voice.
3) interjectional phraseological units, phraseological units which are neither nominative nor communicative.
4) communicative phraseological units are represented by proverbs and sayings.
24. Define the types of phraseological units from the syntactical point of view.
The syntactical classification of phraseological units suggested by I.V.Arnold.
The syntactical principle of classifying phraseological units is based on their ability to perform the same syntactical functions as words.
1) noun phraseological units denoting an object, a person, a living being
2) verb phraseological units denoting an action, a state, a feeling
3) adjective phraseological units denoting a quality
4) adverb phraseological units
5) preposition phraseological units
6) interjection phraseological uints
In I.V.Arnold’s classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings and quotations.
25. Evaluate the basic featuers of formal and informal vocabulary. What differentiates them?
By the sphere of communication we mean the circumstances attending the process of speech in each particular case: professional communication, a lecture, an informal talk, a formal letter, a speech in court, etc. All these circumstances or situations can be roughly classified into two types: formal (a lecture, a speech in court, an official letter, professional communication) and informal (an informal talk, an intimate letter).
Formal style or formal vocabulary is used to cover varieties of English vocabulary that occur in books and magazines, that we hear from a lecture, a public speaker, a radio announcer or possibly in official talk. These types of communication are characterised as monologues addressed by one person to many, and often prepared in advance. Words are used with precision, the vocabulary is elaborate.
Informal style or informal vocabulary is used in personal two-way everyday communication. It is in the form of dialogue where the speaker has the qualities of voice, gesture, the speaker has an opportunity to know whether he is understood, the listener can always interrupt him and demand additional information. The vocabulary may be determined socially or regionally(dialect). Informal vocabulary is used in one’s immediate circle: family, relatives or friends. Informal style is relaxed, free and easy, familiar and unpretentious. The choice of words is determined in each particular case not only by an informal (or formal) situation, but also by the speaker’s educational and cultural background, age group and his occupational and regional characteristics.
26. Compare general and special types of dictionarities and give their differences.
General dictionaries represent the vocabulary as a whole with a degree of completeness depending upon the scope and bulk of the book in question. The group includes the thirteen volumes of “The Oxford English Dictionary” alongside with any miniature pocket dictionary. Some general dictionaries may have very specific aims and still be considered general due to their coverage. They include, for instance, frequency dictionaries, i.e. lists of words, each of which is followed by a record of its frequency of occurrence in one or several sets of reading matter. A rhyming dictionary is also a general dictionary, though arranged in inverse order, and so is a thesaurus in spite of its unusual arrangement. General dictionaries are contrasted to special dictionaries whose stated aim is to cover only a certain specific part of the vocabulary.
Special dictionaries may be further subdivided depending on whether the words are chosen according to the sphere of human activity in which they are used (technical dictionaries), the type of the units themselves (e. g. phraseological dictionaries) or the relationships existing between them (e. g. dictionaries of synonyms).
27. Point out primary and secondary ways of formation of phraseological units.
Ways of formation. Primary ways of formation.
1) by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups, e.g. in cosmic technique we can point out the following phrases: “launching pad” in its terminological meaning is “стартовая площадка”, in its transferred meaning “отправной пункт”, “to link up”- стыковатьсяб стыковать космические корабли in its transformed meaning it means “знакомиться”