Sound imitation

Words are made by imitating different kinds of sounds that may be produced by animals, birds, insects, human beings and inanimated objects. It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by imitating different sounds. a) sounds produced by human beings, to whisper, to giggle, to mumble, to sneeze, to whistle; b) sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, to hiss, to buzz, to bark, to moo; c) sounds produced by nature and objects, to splash, to rustle, to clatter, to bubble, to tinkle.

Stress interchange

They can be mostly met in verbs and nouns of Romanic origin: nouns have the stress on the first syllable and verbs on the last syllable. F: ‘accent-to ac’cent, to con’flict –‘conflict, to ex’port- ‘export.

58. Speak on the native suffixes and illustrate with examples.

The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. From the etymological point of view affixes are classified into two large groups as words: native and borrowed.

Some native suffixes

Noun-forming	-er	Worker, miner, teacher, painter
	-ness	Coldness, loneliness,loveliness
	-ing	Feeling, meaning, reading, singing
	-dom	Freedom, wisdom, kingdom
	-hood	Childhood, manhood, motherhood
	-ship	Friendship, mastership, companionship
	-th	Length, health, truth
Adjective-forming	-ful	Careful, joyful, wonderful, skilful
	-less	Careless, sleepless, senseless
	-y	Cozy, tidy, merry, snowy
	-ish	English, reddish, childish
	-ly	Lonely, lovely, ugly, likely
	-en	Wooden, woolen, golden
	-some	Handsome, quarrelsome, tiresome
Verb-forming	-en	Widen, redden, darken, sadden
Adverb-forming	-ly	Warmly, hardly, simply, carefully, coldly

59. Give the difference between productive and non-productive affixes.

Affixes can also be classified into productive and non-productive types. By productive affixes we mean the ones, which take part in deriving new words in this particular period of language development. The best way to identify productive affixes is to look for them among neologisms and so-called nonce-words, i.e. words coined and used only for this particular occasion. Non-productive affixes which do not give any new coinages.

Some productive affixes

Noun-forming suffixes	-er, -ing, -ness, -ism, -ist, -ance
Adjective-forming suffixes	-y, -ish, -ed, -able, -less
Adverb-forming suffixes	-ly
Verb-forming suffixes	-ize, -ise, -ate
Prefixes	un-, re-, dis-

Some non-productive affixes

Noun-forming suffixes	-th, -hood
Adjective-forming suffixes	-ly, -some, -en, -ous
Verb-forming suffix	-en

60. State out the main functions of suffixes and their classification types.

Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation. The main function of suffixes is to form one part of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. There are different classifications of suffixes:

1. part-of-speech classification.

2. semantic classification.

3. lexical-grammatical character of the stem.

4. origin of suffixes.

5. productivity.

61. State out the main functions of prefixes and their classification types.

Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. Prefixes are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used: prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un- (unhappy). Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as words, e.g. over- (overhead, over the table).

The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. Prefixes can be classified according to different principles:

1. semantic classification

a) prefixes of negative meaning, as in- , non-, un- (invaluable, nonformals, unfree)

b) prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, as: de-, re-, dis- (decolonize, revegetation, disconnect)

11. prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, as: inter-, hyper-, ex-, pre-, over- (interplanetary, hypertension, ex-student, preelection, overdrugging)

2. origin of prefixes:

7. native (Germanic) as: un-, over-, under-

8. Romanic as: in-, de-, ex-, re-

9. Greek as: sym-, hyper-

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62. Compare and contrast the neutral and morphological compounds.

In neutral compounds the process of compounding is realized without any linking elements, by a mere juxtaposition of two stems. There are three subtypes of neutral compounds depending on the structure of the constituent stems. 1) simple neutral compounds, they consist of simple affixless stems. 2) derived or derivational neutral compounds, they have affixes in their structure. 3) contracted neutral compounds, they have a shortened stem in their structure.

Morphological compounds are few in number. This type is non-productive. It is represented by words in which two compounding stems are combined by a linking vowel or consonant.

63. Compare and contrast syntactic and idiomatic compounds.

In syntactic compounds we once more find a feature of specifically English word structure. These words are formed from segments of speech, preserving in their structure numerous traces of syntagmatic relations typical of speech: articles, prepositions, adverbs.

The compounds whose meaning do not correspond to the separate meanings of their constituent parts are called idiomatic compounds. F : blackboard, blackbird, lady-killer, chatterbox, in these compounds one of the components or both has changed its meaning: a blackboard is neither a board nor necessarily black, a chatterbox not a box but a person, and a lady-killer kills no one but is merely a man who fascinates women, a blackbird is some kind of bird.

64. Give your points of view on acronomys and ellipses.

Transformations of word-groups into words involve different types of lexical shortening: ellipsis or substantivisation, initial letter or syllable abbreviations (also referred to as acronyms), blendings, etc.

Substantivisation consists in dropping of the final nominal member of a frequently used attributive word-group. When such a member of the word-group is dropped as, for example, was the case with a documentary film the remaining adjective takes on the meaning and all the syntactic functions of the noun and thus develops into a new word changing its class membership and becoming homonymous to the existing adjective. It may be illustrated by a number of nouns that appeared in this way, e.g. an incendiary goes back to an incendiary bomb, the finals to the final examinations, an editorial to an editorial article, etc. Other more recent creations are an orbital (Br. ‘a highway going around the suburbs of a city’), a verbal (‘a verbal confession introduced as evidence at a trial’), a topless which goes to three different word-groups and accordingly has three meanings: 1) a topless dress, bathing suit, etc., 2) a waitress, dancer, etc. wearing topless garments, 3) a bar, night-club featuring topless waitresses or performers.

Substantivisation is often accompanied by productive suffixation as in, e.g., a one-winger from one-wing plane, a two-decker from two-deck bus or ship; it may be accompanied by clipping and productive suffixation, e.g. flickers (coll.) from flicking pictures, a smoker from smoking carriage, etc.

Acronyms and letter abbreviations are lexical abbreviations of a phrase. There are different types of such abbreviations and there is no unanimity of opinion among scholars whether all of them can be regarded as regular vocabulary units. It seems logical to make distinction between acronyms and letter abbreviations. Letter abbreviations are mere replacements of longer phrases including names of well-known organisations of undeniable currency, names of agencies and institutions, political parties, famous people, names of official offices, etc. They are not spoken or treated as words but pronounced letter by letter and as a rule possess no other linguistic forms proper to words. The following may serve as examples of such abbreviations: CBW = chemical and biological warfare, DOD = Department of Defence (of the USA), 1TV = Independent Television, Instructional Television, SST = supersonic transport, etc. It should be remembered that the border-line between letter abbreviations and true acronyms is fluid and many letter abbreviations in the course of time may turn into regular vocabulary units. Occasionally letter abbreviations are given ‘pronunciation spelling’ as for instance dejay (= D.J. = disc jokey), emce (= M.C. = master of ceremonies) in which case they tend to pass over into true acronyms.

Acronyms are regular vocabulary units spoken as words. They are formed in various ways:

1) from the initial letters or syllables of a phrase, which may be pronounced differently a) as a succession of sounds denoted by the constituent letters forming a syllabic pattern, i.e. as regular words, e.g. UNO ['ju:nou] = United Nations Organisations; NATO ['neitou] = North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, UNESCO [ju:'neskou]; laser ['leisa] = = light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation; radar ['reidэ] = =radio detection and ranging; BMEWS ['bi:mju:z] = Ballistic Missile Early Warning System; b) as a succession of the alphabetical readings of the constituent letters as in, e.g., YCL ['wai’si:'el] = Young Communist League; BBC ['bi:'bi:’si:] = British Broadcasting Corporation; MP ['em'pi:] = Member of Parliament; SOS ['es'ou'es] = Save Our Souls.

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2. Acronyms may be formed from the initial syllables of each word of the phrase, e.g. Interpol = inter/national pol/ice; tacsatcom = Tactical Satellite Communications: Capcom = Capsule Communicator (the person at a space flight centre who communicates with the astronauts during a space flight).

3. Acronyms may be formed by a combination of the abbreviation of the first or the first two members of the phrase with the last member undergoing no change at all, e.g. V-day = Victory Day; H-bomb = = hydrogen bomb; g-force = gravity force, etc.

All acronyms unlike letter abbreviations perform the syntactical functions of ordinary words taking on grammatical inflexions, e.g. MPs (will attack huge arms bill), M.P’s (concern at . . .). They also serve as derivational bases for derived words and easily collocate with derivational suffixes as, e.g. YCLer (= member of the YCL); MPess (= woman-member of Parliament); radarman, etc.

65. Write at out non-semantic grouping and their types. 29) suraktyn jauabymen birdie

66. Express your attitude on the morphological grouping and its types.

Morphological grouping

1) Root or morpheme words. Their stem contains one free morpheme. E.g. dog, hand

2) Derivatives. They contain no less than two morphemes of which at least one is bound. E.g. handy, handful, dogged, doggedly

3) Compound words. They consist of not less than two free morphemes. E.g. dog-cheap (very cheap), dog-days (hottest part of the year), handball, handbook

4) Compound derivatives. They consist of not less than two free morphemes and suffix. E.g. dog-legged (crooked or bent like a dog’s hind leg), left-handed

5) Word-families. The words are grouped according to the root morpheme or according to a common suffix or prefix. E.g. hand, handy, handicraft, handbag, handful, handmade, handsome; gladsome, handsome, tiresome, troublesome, wholesome, winsome

6) Notional words. They can stand alone and yet have meaning and form a complete utterance. They can name different objects of reality, the qualities of these objects and actions or the process in which they take part. They can also express the attitude of the speaker towards reality.

7) Form or functional words. They are empty words or auxiliaries are lexical units which are called words, although they do not confirm to the definition of the word because they are used only in combination with notional words or in reference to them. This group comprises auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunctions and relative adverbs.

8) Linguist Charles Fries gives four classes of morphological grouping. Class I – denotes N words, all nouns, some pronouns and numerals occupying the same positions. Class II – denotes V words, verbs with the exception of the auxiliaries. Class III – denotes A words, adjectives, some pronouns and numerals used attributively. Class IV – denotes D words, adverbs and some noun phrases.

67. Say about the lexico-grammatical grouping of English vocabulary and its types. 30) suraktyn jauaby

68. Compare the thematic and ideographic groupings and give examples. 30) surakta bar

69. Analyze the emotionally neutral and emotionally- marked grouping of words. 10) suraktyn jauaby

70. Discuss the stylistically neutral and stylistically coloured vocabulary. 32) suraktyn jauaby

71. Define the criteria distinguishing official and non-official vocabulary. 49) suraktyn jauaby

72. Give the determining structures of functional style and its types

The social context in which the communication is taking place determines both the mode of dress and the modes of speech. When placed in different situations, people instinctively choose different kinds of words and structures to express their thoughts. What word to use in certain situation depends on its stylistic characteristics or, in other words on the functional style it represents. The term functional style is generally accepted in modern linguistics. Professor I.V.Arnold defines it as “a system of expressive means peculiar to a specific sphere of communication”. By the sphere of communication we mean the circumstances attending the process of speech in each particular case: professional communication, a lecture, an informal talk, a formal letter, a speech in court, etc. All these circumstances or situations can be roughly classified into two types: formal (a lecture, a speech in court, an official letter, professional communication) and informal (an informal talk, an intimate letter).

73. Give the definition of professional terminology.

Formal words fall into the grouping as: words associated with professional communication (professional terminology) and a less exclusive group so-called learned words.

Professional terminology means the set of words which belong to special scientific, professional or trade systems and are not used or even understood by people outside the particular speciality. Every field of modern activity has its specialized vocabulary.

74. Give the controversial problems of terms and express your poin of view on the problems. 5) suraktyn jauaby

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75. Compare the familiar colloquial and low colloquial words, give examples. 17) surakta bar

76. Compare general and special slang, give examples. 17) surakta bar

77. Explain the differences and similarities of slang and jargon. 17) surakta bar

78. Explain the differences between fiction and poetry, give examples. 7) surakta bar

79. Give information on regional and territorial variants of English. 34) suraktyn sonynda bar

80. Give the sources of homonyms and compare with your tongue. 36) surakta bar

81. Give the sources of synonyms and compare with your tongue. 6) surak matininin ortasynda

82. Compare synonyms and antonyms, their important features. 12) surakta bar

83. Give the difference between ideographic and stylistic synonyms, give examples. 6) surakta bar

84. Speak on absolute synonyms and their features. 6) surakta bar

85. Give the classification types of synonyms from the connotational side. 38) surakta bar

86. Contrast three types of antonyms: absolute, derivational, mixed. 37) surakta bar

87. Give the functions of phraseological units, illustrate with examples. 9) surakta bar

88. Express your attitude on the structure and parts of speech of phraseological units in English.

Semantic structure of phraseological unit is a complex formation with different denotative, significant and connotative aspects of meaning.

The denotative aspect of phraseological meaning is the word subject named by this unit 1) relation between a lexical unit and an extralanguage subject or phenomena, 2) subject denotation the significant aspect is a phraseological unit concept; a reflection of certain object concept in human consciousness; the connotative aspect is emotionally-expressive side and stylistic colouring of phraseological unit; additional word content, its stylistic colouring that superpose upon the main word meaning and convey emotionally-expressive and estimative attitude of the speaker to the denoted object.

Correlation of these aspects in different types of phraseological units is different. One of the aspects may prevail and it causes certain influence of a phraseological unit on the communicative process.

In comparative phraseological units significant and connotative aspects predominate. The communicative contribution of phraseological units of this type is fixed with the help of certain object determination, in which they carry pragmatic characteristic defined by emotionally-expressive factor of their meaning.

 The structure of comparative phraseological units has the following model: Adv (as) + Adj + Adv (as) + N. Though in some cases comparative phraseological units contain additional elements (parts of speech) which make the definition more precise and accurate: an adjective before a noun of the main construction as innocent as a new-born babe compare with as innocent as a babe ; a preposition with a noun as an attribute plus a noun after a noun of the main construction as helpless as a fly in a spider’s web; a preposition with a noun after a noun of the main construction as soft as the passage of a cat; a noun as an attribute before a noun of the main construction as fine as spider’s web; an adjective before a noun of the main construction and a preposition with a noun after a noun of the main construction as fixed as the adamantine decrees of fate; a noun as an attribute before a noun of the main construction and a preposition with a nounafter a noun of the main construction as fast as the seconds hand of a watch; an adjective before a noun of the main construction and a preposition with a noun as an attribute plus a noun after a noun of the main construction as pure as the sparkling water of a mountain brook 

89. State out the primary ways of formation of phraseological units. 27) surakta bar

90. State out the secondary ways of formation of phraseological units. 27) surakta bar

91. Give the structural difference of English phraseological units. 28) surakta “The structural criterion...” dep bastalady

92. Give the semantic differtence of English phraseological units. 28) surakta bar

93. Evaluate and give examples of thematic or etymological classification of phraseological units. 9) surakta bar

94. Evaluate and give examples of structural classification of phraseological units. 22) surakta bar

95. Evaluate and give examples of semantic classification of phraseological units. 20) surakta bar

96. Evaluate and give examples of syntactic classification of phraseological units. 24) surakta bar

97. Evaluate and give examples of functional classification of phraseological units. 23) surakta bar

98. Compare and contrast phraseological units and proverbs, their functions in speech. 9) suraktyn ortasynda

99. Express your attitude on lexicographic researches of dirrerent linguistics.

Lexicography, that is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, is an important branch of applied linguistics. The fundamental paper in lexicographic theory was written by L.V. Shcherba as far back as 1940. A complete bibliography of the subject may be found in L.P. Stupin’s works. Lexicography has a common object of study with lexicology, both describe the vocabulary of a language. The term dictionary is used to denote a book listing words of a language with their meanings and often with data regarding pronunciation, usage and/or origin. There are also dictionaries that concentrate their attention upon only one of these aspects: pronouncing (phonetical) dictionaries (by Daniel Jones) and etymological dictionaries (by Walter Skeat, by Erik Partridge, “The Oxford English Dictionary").

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100. Give the correct definition of the term dictionary.

The term dictionary is used to denote a book listing words of a language with their meanings and often with data regarding pronunciation, usage and/or origin. For dictionaries in which the words and their definitions belong to the same language the term unilingual or explanatory is used, whereas bilingual or translation dictionaries are those that explain words by giving their equivalents in another language. Multilingual or polyglot dictionaries are not numerous, they serve chiefly the purpose of comparing synonyms and terminology in various languages.

101. Give the similarities and differences of linguistic and encyclopaedic dictionaries. 11) suraktyn basy

102. Give the similarities and differences of unlingual and bilingual dictionaries. 11) suraktyn ortasy

103. Give the similarities and differences of general and special dictionaries.11) suraktyn sony

104. Explain diachronic and synchronic dictionaries.

Unilingual dictionaries are further subdivided with regard to the time. Diachronic dictionaries, of which “The Oxford English Dictionary” is the main example, reflect the development of the English vocabulary by recording the history of form and meaning for every word registered. They may be contrasted to synchronic or descriptive dictionaries of current English concerned with present-day meaning and usage of words. The boundary between the two is, however, not very rigid: that is to say, few dictionaries are consistently synchronic, chiefly, perhaps, because their methodology is not developed as yet, so that in many cases the two principles are blended. Some synchronic dictionaries are at the same time historical when they represent the state of vocabulary at some past stage of its development.

105. Give the characteristic features of learner’s dictionaries.

Nowadays practical and theoretical learner’s lexicography is given great attention to, especially in our country. Lexicographers, linguists and methods specialists discuss such problems as the classification of learner’s dictionaries,¹ the scope of the. word-list for learners at different stages of advancement, the principles of word selection, etc.

In the broad sense of the word the term learner’s dictionaries might be applied to any word-book designed as an aid to various users, both native and foreign, studying a language from various angles. Thus, we might refer to this group of word-books such reference books as Student’s Dictionary of Anglo-Saxon by H. Sweet, the numerous school-level or college-level dictionaries for native speakers, the numerous spelling-books, etc. By tradition the term is confined to dictionaries specially compiled to meet the demands of the learners for whom English is not their mother tongue. It is in this sense that we shall use the term further on.

These dictionaries differ essentially from ordinary academic dictionaries, on the one hand, and from word-books compiled specially for English and American schoolchildren and college students, on the other hand.

Though foreign language learners and children speaking the same language as their mother tongue have both imperfect command of English, it is obvious that the needs and problems of the two groups of dictionary users are altogether different. A foreign adult student of English even at a moderately advanced stage of learning will have pitfalls and needs of his own: among the other things he may have difficulties with the use of the most “simple” words (such as play, wipe), he may not know the names for commonest things in everyday life (such as oatmeal, towel, rug) and he will experience in this or that degree interference of his mother tongue.

On the one hand, we have users who for the most part have command of the language, who have fluent speech habits, since this language is their mother tongue; they need guidance as to which of the usage they come across is correct. On the other hand, we have users that have a limited vocabulary and no speech habits or very weak ones and who have stable speech habits in another language which is their native tongue and these native speech habits interfere with the foreign ones. That is why these users must be given thorough instruction in how the words are to be used and this instruction must be given against the background of the learners’ native language.

That is why the word-lists and the sort of directions for use for the benefit of the foreign adult learners of English must differ very widely (if not fundamentally) from those given to English or American schoolchildren.

Hence the word-books of this group are characterised by the following features:

1. by their strictly limited word-list, the selection of which is based on carefully thought over scientific principles;

2. the great attention given to the functioning of lexical units in speech;

3. a strong prescriptive, normative character;

4. by their compilation with the native linguistic background in view.

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